UWJV.  Of  CALIF.  LIBRARY,  LQS  ANGM6 


LIBRARY  OF 

ARCHITECTURE  AND 

ALLIED  ARTS 


Gift  of 

The   Heirs 

of 
R .    Germain  Hubby  ,   A .  I .  A. . 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 


FACADE    OF   THE    CATHEDRAL   AT    RHEIMS 


HOW  TO  KNOW 

ARCHITECTURE 


y  % 

THE  HUMAN  ELEMENTS    . 

IN    THE 

EVOLUTION  OF  STYLES 

BY 

FRANK   E.  WALLIS,  A.A.I.A. 


AUTHOR   OF 
"OLD    COLONIAL    ARCHITECTURE" 


ILLUSTRATED 


HARPER  &   BROTHERS    PUBLISHERS 

NEW      YORK      AND       LONDON 

M   C   M   X 


Copyright,  iqio,  by  HARPER  &  BROTHERS 

Published   November,  1910. 
Printed  in  til'  fnittd  St.itrt  <>/ .-I'ntrff.i 


CONTENTS 

PAGAN— THE  FIRST  PERIOD 

CHAP.  PAGE 

I.  THE  HUMAN  FACTORS  IN  ARCHITECTURE    ....  3 

II.  TRADE  AND  SCIENTIFIC  FACTORS 10 

III.  GREEK  FACTORS 26 

IV.  THE  FIRST  GREAT  TRANSITION 55 

CHRISTIAN— THE  SECOND  PERIOD 

V.  THE  BIRTH  OF  CHRISTIAN  ARCHITECTURE  ...  87 

VI.  THE  SECOND  GREAT  TRANSITION 96 

VII.  PREPARATION  FOR  THE  GOTHIC       125 

VIII.  THE  GOTHIC 132 

IX.  FLAMBOYANT  GOTHIC 150 

INTELLECTUAL— THE  THIRD  PERIOD 

X.  THE  THIRD  GREAT  TRANSITION 169 

XI.  THE  RENAISSANCE  IN  FRANCE 196 

XII.  FRANCIS  I.  TO  Louis  XVI 213 

XIII.  FROM  Louis  XVI.  TO  MODERN  FRANCE  ....  229 

XIV.  PARALLEL  DEVELOPMENTS  IN  ENGLAND  ....  239 

XV.  THE  GEORGIAN  PERIOD  OF  ENGLAND      ....  256 

MODERN— THE  FOURTH   PERIOD 

XVI.  THE  GEORGIAN  IN  AMERICA       271 

XVII.  THE  AMERICAN  DECADENCE        294 

XVIII.  PROGRESS  IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES 304 

XIX.  THE  ARCHITECT  AND  THE  FUTURE 312 

INDEX 321 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

FACADE    OF    THE    CATHEDRAL    AT    RHEIMS     .       .       .      Frontispiece 

I EGYPTIAN    COLUMNS    FROM    THE    TEMPLE    OF    LUXOR     .       .  15 

2 — THE    OLD    TOMBS    PRISON,    NEW    YORK l"J 

3 AN    ASSYRIAN    COLUMN,    PERSEPOLIS l8 

4 — ASSYRIAN    SCULPTURE IQ 

5 — AN    ASSYRIAN    CAPITAL    SHOWING    THE     ORIGIN    OF    THE 

IONIC 2O 

6 DIAGRAM  OF  AXIS  PLAN 23 

7 NEW  HAMPSHIRE  BARN  FRAME       33 

8 GREEK  STONE  CONSTRUCTION 35 

9 — THE  PARTHENON 37 

IO — DORIC    COLUMN    FROM    THE    TEMPLE    OF    HERCULES, 

AGRIGENTUM 4! 

II — AN  IONIC  COLUMN  FROM  THE  TEMPLE  OF  "  WINGLESS 

VICTORY" 43 

12 — DETAIL  OF  IONIC  CAPITAL  SHOWING  VOLUTE    ....  44 

13 — CORINTHIAN  CAPITAL,  PANTHEON,  ROME 45 

14 — MODIFIED  CORINTHIAN 46 

15 — CORINTHIAN  CAPITAL  FROM  THE  TEMPLE  OF  LYSICRATES  .  47 
1 6— PORCH   OF   HOUSE   AT   SALEM,   MASS.,   SHOWING   IONIC 

COLUMN 48 

17 — UNION  SQUARE  SAVINGS-BANK,  NEW  YORK  (CORINTHIAN)  50 

1 8—  OLD  CUSTOM-HOUSE,  NEW  YORK  (lONIC  COLUMNS)    .     .  5! 
IQ — COLONNADE  ON  LAFAYETTE  PLACE,  NEW  YORK  (CORIN- 

THIAN) 53 

2O — ENTRANCE  TO  THE  ASTOR  HOUSE,  NEW  YORK  (DORIC)  .  54 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG-  PACK 

21 — TOMB    OF    ALEXANDER    THE    GREAT 56 

22 — TRIUMPHAL    ARCH    OF    TITUS rg 

2J — ST.  SOPHIA,  CONSTANTINOPLE 64 

24 — ST.  MARK'S,  VENICE 65 

25 — ROMAN  ARCH  WITH  PEDIMENT ()7 

26 — GREEK-CROSS  PLAN  AT  TORCELLO,  ITALY,  WITH  DRUM 

AND    DOME          69 

27 — THE  DUOMO  AT  SIENA,  ITALY  (POINTED  BYZANTINE)    .  JO 

28 — DOORWAY  OF  CHURCH  AT  ST.  MARK'S,  VENICE  ...  71 

29<7 — BYZANTINE  CAPITAL,  ST.  MARK'S,  VENICE     ....  72 

296 — BYZANTINE  CAPITAL,  RAVENNA 72 

JO — COMPOSITE  CAPITAL  FROM  SEVILLE  (MOORISH)    ...  7} 

31 — MOORISH  ARCH  AND  ARABESQUE,  ALHAMBRA  ....  74 

32 — THE  ZENANA  AT  AGRA,  INDIA 75 

33 — KNICKERBOCKER  TRUST  COMPANY,  NEW  YORK  (ROMAN 

CORINTHIAN) 77 

34 — CHURCH  OF  THE  MADELEINE,  PARIS 78 

35 — MADISON  SQUARE  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH,  NEW  YORK  .  79 

36 — UNITARIAN  CHURCH,  NEW  YORK       8  I 

37 — TEMPLE  EMANU-EL,  NEW  YORK 82 

38 — INTERIOR  OF  ST.  LORENZO,  ROME  (BASILICA)      ...  89 
39 — ROMAN    CAPITALS    AT    MOISSAC,    SHOWING    THE    IN- 
CREASED   SIZE    OF    ABACUS    AND    ORNAMENT    IN- 
FLUENCED BY  THE  BYZANTINE        IOI 

4O — ST.  TROPHIME,  ARLES,  FRANCE  (ROMANESQUE)  .  .  .  103 
41 — ROMANESQUE  PORTAL  AT  ST.  GILLES,  FRANCE  .  .  .  105 
42 — DETAIL  OF  PORTAL  AT  ST.  GILLES,  FRANCE  ....  106 
43 — NOTRE  DAME  DU  PUY,  LE-PUY-EN-VELAY,  FRANCE  .  IO8 
44 — DOORWAY  OF  NOTRE  DAME  DU  PORT,  CLERMONT- 
FERRAND,  FRANCE HO 

45 — DETAIL  OF  APSE,  CHURCH  OF  NOTRE  DAME  DU  PORT, 

CLERMONT-FERRAND,    FRANCE Ill 

46— CATHEDRAL    OF    ST.    FRONT,    PERIGUEUX,    FRANCE       .       .  112 

47 — TOWER    OF    ST.    PIERRE    AT    ANGOULEME,    FRANCE        .       .  115 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

48 — PORCH    OF    TRINITY    CHURCH,     BOSTON,    MASS.     (ROMAN- 
ESQUE)      119 

49 — MAIN   ENTRANCE   OF  COURT-HOUSE,   PITTSBURG   (ROMAN- 
ESQUE)      121 

50 — ENTRANCE   TO  THE   CITY   HALL,   ALBANY,   N.   Y.    (ROMAN- 
ESQUE)      122 

51— ROMANESQUE    BRACKET   AT    MOISSAC,    FRANCE         .       .       .  123 

52 — THE    ARCH    THRUST 133 

53 — THE    CATHEDRAL    AT    BEAUVAIS,    FRANCE 135 

54 — TENEMENT  IN   MORLAIX,   FRANCE,    BUILT  ON  THE   RUINS 

OF    NORMAN    WORK 137 

55 — CARVED    CORNER-POST    AT    SENS,    FRANCE 139 

56 — DORMER    AT     LISIEUX,     FRANCE,     SHOWING    TRANSITION 

FROM    FIFTEENTH-CENTURY   GOTHIC 14! 

58 — PORCH    OF    THE    CATHEDRAL    AT    RHEIMS 143 

59 — INTERIOR    OF    CATHEDRAL    AT    ROUEN 145 

60 — SAINTE    CHAPELLE,    PARIS    (GOTHIC) 148 

6l — SCREEN   OF  THE   CATHEDRAL  AT  TROYES,   FRANCE    (FIF- 
TEENTH-CENTURY GOTHIC) 154 

62 — ST.  MACLOU,  ROUEN 156 

63 — ST.  THOMAS'S  CHURCH,  NEW  YORK 158 

64 — RESIDENCE  OF  W.    K.    VANDERBILT,   NEW   YORK   (siX- 

TEENTH-CENTURY   GOTHIC') l6o 

65 — THE     LADY    CHAPEL,     ST.     PATRICK'S    CATHEDRAL,    NEW 

YORK l62 

66 — DOOR  ON  BROADWAY,  NEW  YORK  (FIFTEENTH-CENTURY 

GOTHIC) 164 

67 — RICCARDI  PALACE,  FLORENCE  (ITALIAN  RENAISSANCE)  .  171 

68 — THE  ROUND  ARCHES  OF  ST.  MARK*S,  VENICE      .     .     .  173 

69 — DUCAL  PALACE,  VENICE 175 

70 — THE  LIBRARY,  VENICE 177 

71 — FARNESE  PALACE,  ROME      . 179 

72 — THE    CAPITOL,    ROME l8l 

73 — A    TENEMENT    IN    VITERBO,    ITALY 183 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

fin.  PACE 

74 — NFW  YORK  HERALD  BUILDING 1 86 

75— PALACE  AT  VERONA,  ITALY l88 

76 — TIFFANY  AND  COMPANY,  NEW  YORK  (VENETIAN)  .     .  IQO 

77 — PUBLIC  LIBRARY  NO.  29,  NEW  YORK  (FLORENTINE)  .  IQ2 
78 — PENNSYLVANIA     RAILROAD     STATION,     NEW      YORK 

(ROMAN) 194 

79— LOUIS  XII.  DOORWAY  (LATE  GOTHIC) 197 

80— CHATEAU  AT  BLOIS,  FRANCE  (FRANCIS  I.)     ....  198 

8 1 — CHIMNEY  AT  BLOIS,  FRANCE  (FRANCIS  I.)      ....  2OO 

82— DORMER  AT  BLOIS,  FRANCE 2OI 

83 — THE  PAVILION  AT  FONTAINEBLEAU,  PARIS  (FRANCIS  I.)  2O2 

84 — FINE  ARTS  BUILDING,  NEW  YORK  (FRANCIS  I.)      .     .  203 

85 — CHATEAU  AT  CHAMBORD,  FRANCE 205 

86 CHATEAU  OF  AZAY  LE  RIDEAU,  FRANCE 207 

87 — CHATEAU  AT  CHENONCEAUX 2o8 

88 — THE  SCHWAB  RESIDENCE,  NEW  YORK 2IO 

89 — BILTMORE  HOUSE,  NORTH  CAROLINA 212 

90— VERSAILLES  (LOUIS  XIV.) 217 

91 — DOORWAY  AT  VERSAILLES  (LOUIS  XIV.) 2ig 

92 — DOORWAY  AT  VERSAILLES  (LOUIS  XV.) 223 

93 — INTERIOR  OF  A  DRAWING-ROOM  (l.OUIS  XVI.)    .     .     .  227 

94 — THE  LOUVRE  OF  PHILIP  AUGUSTUS 235 

95 — A  PAVILION  OF  THE  MODERN  LOUVRE 237 

96 CANTERBURY  CATHEDRAL  (EARLY  NORMAN  AND  LATE 

GOTHIC) 241 

97 — INTERIOR  OF  WESTMINSTER  ABBEY 243 

98 — MODERN  TRANSLATION  OF  TUDOR  GOTHIC    ....  245 

99 — MODERN  TRANSLATION  OF  LATE  GOTHIC 249 

100 — ST.  PAUL'S  CATHEDRAI 253 

IOI CITY  HALL,  NEW  YORK  (ENGLISH  RENAISSANCE.)  .     .  259 

I O2 — GEORGIAN  IN  ENGLAND 262 

IO3 — DOORWAY  IN  NEW  YORK  CITY  (GREEK) 264 

IO4 — DOORWAY  IN  NEW  YORK  CITY  (GREEK) 266 

105— CHURCH  IN  MEXICO 273 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGB 

IO6 — DUTCH  BUNGALOW,  NEW  YORK  STATE 277 

107 — A  GAMBREL  ROOF  AT  NEWPORT,  R.  1 278 

IO8 — CHURCH  AT  SALEM,  MASS 280 

109 — ARCHITECT'S  DRAWING  OF  HOUSE  IN  SALEM  (1799)   .  282 

IIO — STATE  CAPITOL,  BOSTON,  MASS .  284 

III — A  DOORWAY  AT  PORTSMOUTH,  N.  H 287 

112 A  MODERN  EXAMPLE  OF  GEORGIAN  (CORINTHIAN)     .  289 

113 — A  MODERN  EXAMPLE  OF  GEORGIAN  (DORIC)      .     .     .  292 

114 — THE  BLACK-WALNUT  PERIOD  (VICTORIAN  GOTHIC)      .  295 
115 — POST-OFFICE    AT    MARSHALLTOWN,    IOWA     (FRENCH 

RENAISSANCE) 299 

Il6 POST-OFFICE  AT  PORTSMOUTH,  VA.  (ENGLISH  RENAIS- 
SANCE)           302 

117 — A   DEPARTMENT   STORE    IN    DUSSELDORF,    GERMANY       .  311 


PAGAN 


THE   FIRST    PERIOD 


HOW  TO  KNOW  ARCHITECTURE 


CHAPTER   I 


THE    HUMAN    FACTORS    IN    ARCHITECTURE 

ACING  the  vast  amount  of  literature  on 
architectural  history,  it  would  be  almost 
an   impertinence   to  offer  the   public   an- 
other   book    were    it    not    that    so    little 
has    been    written    that   may    be    readily 
understood  and  enjoyed  by  those  without 
technical  training. 
I  have  undertaken  to  discuss  this   subtle  and  fascinat- 
ing expression  of  human  development  from  the  viewpoint 
of  familiar,  every-day  experience  here   in  our  American 
homes.     With  the  construction  and  design  of  the  build- 

O 

ings  on  our  own  streets  in  city,  town,  or  village,  as  ex- 
amples, we  will  trace  the  growth  of  form  and  detail  back 
through  the  ages,  learning  to  read  in  the  familiar  things 
about  us  the  strange  but  intensely  human  story  of  the 
evolution  of  architectural  styles  and  to  understand  their 
significance  in  our  own  lives. 

Every  American  city,  and  most  of  our  towns,  contains 
examples  of  all  the  principal  styles  or  periods  in  archi- 
tecture, besides  some  of  no  legitimate  parentage  whatever. 

3 


HOW   TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

This  in  itself  is  a  plain  exposition  of  a  basic  architectural 
truth,  which  we  will  Hncl  repeating  itself  over  and  over 
in  all  phases  of  the  subject.  It  is  that  architecture  is 
man's  most  self-revealing  record  of  his  struggle  upward 
from  barbarism  to  the  complex  civili/ation  of  to-day.  It 
expresses  intimately  and  unerringly  his  ambitions  and 
ideals,  his  strength  and  his  weakness,  his  ignorance  and 
his  awakening.  The  stud)  of  architectural  progress  must 
for  this  reason  be  also  the  study  of  human  progress. 
History  and  this  most  permanent  and  all-embracing  of 
the  arts  are  thus  most  intimately  united.  There  is  noth- 
ing in  architecture,  down  to  the  curve  of  a  molding  or 
the  proportions  of  an  individual  brick,  that  has  not  its 
specific  human  reason.  Often  in  the  case  of  such  trivial 
details  as  these  we  must  go  back  through  the  centuries 
to  some  great  crisis  in  human  affairs  for  that  reason. 

The  polyglot  character  of  American  architecture  is  an 
excellent  example  of  this  general  truth.  We  are  a  young 
nation,  composite  in  character,  and  not  yet  bound  to- 
gether by  any  great  ties  of  common  tradition.  We  are 
made  up  from  all  the  nations  of  civilization.  The  Latin 
and  the  Saxon  stand  cheek  by  jowl  with  the  Teuton  and 
the  Celt,  and  the  progress  of  amalgamation,  though  more 
rapid  than  ever  before  in  the  world's  history,  has  not 
yet  been  fast  enough  to  produce  anything  like  complete 
homogeneity.  Our  architecture  in  its  odd  mixtures  of 
types  perfectly  reflects  this  state  of  things.  It  is  Classic 
or  Gothic,  French,  German,  Spanish,  or  something  else, 
with  no  one  influence  dominant — incohesive  and  with 
little  continuity  of  growth. 

Architecture,  though  the  aesthetically  sensitive  may  rail 
at  it,  is  thus  a  prolific  source  of  historical  data,  a  most 

4 


HUMAN    FACTORS    IN    ARCHITECTURE 

comprehensive  and  interesting  text-book  of  which  I  shall 
make  frequent  use,  and  shall  do  my  best  to  interpret 
simply  and,  I  hope,  interestingly. 

Accepting,  then,  the  dictum  that  architecture  is  a  rec- 
ord of  man's  development,  we  seek  first  the  basic  forces, 
or  motives,  in  the  human  advance,  so  that  we  may  find 
the  primary  sources  of  architectural  inspiration.  What 
impelling  ambition,  in  other  words,  has  driven  men  to 
the  astonishing  feats  of  building  that  are  our  heritage  ? 
A  little  thought  gives  us  a  comprehensive  answer:  Man's 
first  purely  human  realization  was  of  the  value  of  ma- 
terial possessions,  for  which  he  went  out  into  the  wilder- 
ness to  conquer  and  trade.  His  next  step  was  the  awak- 
ening of  fear  or  respect  for  the  mysterious,  unaccountable 
forces  of  nature,  the  beginnings  of  religion,  and  the  volun- 
tary contribution  of  his  finest  material  possession  in  the 
propitiation  or  glorification  of  these  forces.  We  will  look 
at  this  progression  somewhat  more  closely  in  a  few  mo- 
ments, but  this  gives  us  the  fundamental  truth  for  a  basic 
formula  or  text  which  may  be  expressed  thus:  Trade  sub- 
dues the  wilderness,  and  science,  with  art,  builds  therein 
temples  to  the  Ideal. 

In  pursuit  of  this  idea,  let  us  now  step  backward 
through  the  ages  in  search  of  the  beginnings  of  trade,  of 
science,  and  of  idealism,  those  three  primal  factors  in 
human  development.  How  did  man,  in  his  progress 
through  apehood,  come  to  evolve  these  three  elements  of 
existence  that  have  given  us  all  we  have  of  civilization, 
including,  of  course,  our  legacy  of  architecture,  and  on 
which  we  depend  for  all  future  progress  ? 

The  basis  of  trade  is  material  possession.  It  is  not 
impossible  to  imagine  the  life  of  our  arboreal  ancestors 
2  5 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

at  the  time  when  they  Hrst  began  to  value  worldly  goods. 
The  desire  for  food  was,  of  course,  instinctive,  and  so 
apparently  was  the  male's  sense  of  possession  of  the 
female.  The  dawning  of  a  reasoning  faculty  came  a 
little  later.  The  ape-man's  hahit  of  throwing  missiles 
at  intruders,  from  his  aerial  perch,  changes  into  a  hahit 
of  retaining  in  his  pa\v  the  hranch  or  cluh  he  has  hereto- 
fore hurled.  A  fight  or  two  at  close  quarters  would  teach 
him  this.  The  particular  value  of  a  good,  heavy,  knobby 
club  would  soon  dawn  on  him,  and  he  \vould  get  into  the 
way  of  carrying  it  about  with  him,  or  of  hiding  it  in  a 
convenient  place. 

Later  we  can  imagine  that  the  demand  for  good  clubs 
became  brisk.  The  most  enterprising  of  the  ape-men 
went  out  into  the  wilderness  to  hunt  for  them,  and  ac- 
quired a  collection,  which  was  prized  highly  and  was 
constantly  raided  by  neighbors.  This  subject  of  clubs, 
or  what  not,  soon  became  so  interesting  that  it  formed  a 
basis  for  social  intercourse.  Clubs  were  compared  and, 
finally,  exchanged — the  first  commercial  transaction. 

This  possession  of  a  club  gave  the  ape-man  confidence 
to  remain  longer  on  the  ground,  and  at  last  to  desert 
permanently  the  tree-tops  for  the  more  or  less  strenuous 
life  below.  This  meant  that  he  must  become  the  pro- 
tector of  his  females  and  young,  as  conditions  held  them 
together  for  a  longer  period  than  heretofore.  In  this 
way  a  new  attachment  grew,  so  that  when  a  partner  died 
he  felt  grief,  and  unable  to  comprehend  finality  evolved 
the  primitive  conception  of  future  life. 

The  need  of  protection  from  foes  for  himself  and  family 
and  the  desire  for  physical  comfort  led  the  ape-man  to 
occupy  such  caves  as  he  could  find.  When  they  were  too 

6 


HUMAN    FACTORS    IN    ARCHITECTURE 

small,  he  made  enlargements  and  piled  debris  around  the 
mouth  for  future  protection.  In  some  such  incident  as 
this  we  probably  had  the  birth  of  science,  the  constructive 
application  of  the  reasoning  faculties,  and  of  architecture. 

This  ape-man — he  of  the  bridged  nose  and  straight 
hair — multiplied  his  power  and  comforts  by  the  acquisition 
of  better  and  more  effective  weapons,  and  the  continued 
improvement  of  his  cave  along  lines  suggested  in  the 
interchange  of  ideas  with  his  neighbors  and  by  his  own 
increasing  inventiveness.  The  community  grew  with  the 
increase  of  individual  power,  and  with  it  developed  senti- 
ment— the  clan  spirit.  Our  newly  evolved  man  became 
a  chief,  or  king.  His  sense  of  importance  expanded  ac- 
cordingly, and  he  began  to  consider  even  the  great  forces 
of  nature  as  having  some  direct  personal  relation  to  him- 
self. What  they  were  he  did  not  know,  and,  naturally 
enough,  he  took  them  for  enemies.  When  he  found  that 
his  weapons  were  of  no  avail  against  them,  he  grew  more 
afraid,  and  invested  them  with  powers  and  personalities 
which  they  did  not  possess. 

Man's  next  idea  was  to  propitiate  the  unknown  powers, 
a  plan  doubtless  originating  in  his  domestic  experience. 
Logically  his  first  thought  wras  to  ofTer  them  food.  In 
order  that  this  should  not  get  into  the  hands  of  those 
for  whom  it  was  not  intended,  and  the  powers  be  un- 
appeased,  he  chose  for  it  a  secret  place  in  the  forest,  open 
to  the  sky  and  as  far  above  the  ground  as  he  could  raise 
it  with  stones.  So  we  have  the  first  altar  and  the  be- 
ginning of  the  church.  His  visits  to  this  place  became 
more  and  more  ceremonious  as  his  imagination  created 
greater  demands  of  the  unknown  power,  and  thus  grew 
the  formalism  of  religious  worship. 

7 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

He  also  began  to  give  to  this  power  some  of  his  own 
attributes,  and  as  the  young  in  his  growing  family  imi- 
tated him  because  of  his  power  and  leadership,  and 
offered  him,  through  growing  affection  and  respect,  the 
good  results  which  grew  from  emulation,  so  he  in  turn 
grew  to  imitate  the  powers  beyond  him,  offering  on  his 
altar  the  choicest  of  his  possessions. 

As  the  ambition  of  the  younger  generation  increased 
because  of  his  example,  so  the  attributes  of  this  mighty 
unknown  power  stimulated  the  man's  mental  and  moral 
growth.  With  God  man  also  created  idealism. 

We  find,  then,  at  the  very  birth  of  the  race,  man  going 
abroad  among  other  men,  to  subdue  the  wilderness  and 
to  trade;  and  science,  the  constructive  intelligence,  build- 
ing temples  for  the  worship  of  the  ideal. 

This  may  seem  an  almost  childishly  confident  way  of 
dismissing  that  mysterious  dawn-period  of  human  life 
which  so  many  great  minds  have  attempted  in  ponderous 
tomes  to  reconstruct  for  us.  Darwin  and  Haeckel  and 
Mil  Her,  among  others,  devoted  the  best  part  of  their  lives 
to  the  synthesis.  But  it  is  important  here  only  to  indi- 
cate that  those  three  elements  of  our  racial  life  to-day 
were  basic  from  the  first,  and  have  been  the  threefold 
thread  of  our  worldly  destiny  down  through  the  ages. 

Trade  ambition  is  the  discovering  and  acquisitive  force, 
science  is  the  constructive  capacity  that  trade  ambition 
calls  into  being,  and  idealism  is  a  master  passion  of  the 
race,  and  levies  tribute  of  the  best  from  the  race  in  every 
field.  In  so  doing  it  begets  the  creative  faculty,  which  in 
turn,  operating  under  the  inspiration  of  an  ideal  with 
enthusiasm,  adds  the  element  of  beauty,  and  the  result 
we  call  art. 


HUMAN    FACTORS    IN    ARCHITECTURE 

We  have  traced  the  beginning  of  primitive  idealism  to 
the  worship  of  the  mysterious,  the  birth  of  religion,  for 
we  find  it  through  all  early  times  the  dominant  ideal  in 
the  production  of  architecture.  Until  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury of  our  own  era,  the  great  "temples  to  the  ideal"  were 
actually  religious  edifices.  Nevertheless,  from  earliest 
times  a  domestic  ideal  existed  and  expressed  itself  in 
dwellings,  which  have  been  enlarged,  improved,  and  beau- 
tified through  the  ages  to  this  day,  as  the  domestic  ideal 
rose  and  expanded.  Somewhat  later  came  the  civic  and 
national  ideal  in  turn,  and  many  others  of  lesser  impor- 
tance, all  of  which  have  called  to  their  glorification  the 
service  of  science  in  the  creation  of  special,  tributary 
architecture. 

A  close  parallel  to  the  development  of  architecture, 
which  we  have  seen  as  a  graven  and  structural  language, 
exists  in  our  spoken  and  written  language.  A  brief  ex- 
amination would  show  that  both  languages  are  created 
and  differentiated  in  response  to  the  same  subtle  human 
forces.  The  parallel  might  even  be  traced  historically, 
from  age  to  age  and  from  country  to  country,  but  a  mere 
mention  of  it  here  suffices,  and  it  strengthens  our  premise 
that  architecture  is  an  accurate  and  readable  human 
document. 


CHAPTER   II 


TRADE    AND    SCIENTIFIC    FACTORS 


HE  intimate  relation  of  architecture  to 
trade  is  dramatically  illustrated  in  your 
own  act  of  building  a  house.  The  mo- 
ment that  science  is  called  upon  by  you 
for  the  construction  of  your  individual 
temple  to  the  ideal  of  family,  the  trade  of 
the  world  is  enlisted  in  your  service. 
Miners,  quarrymen,  lumbermen,  sailors,  artists,  and 
artisans  of  every  sort,  in  the  four  corners  of  the  earth, 
set  to  work  to  supply  you  with  materials.  The  one  item 
of  the  locks  on  your  doors  may  involve  almost  an  infinity 
of  diverse  interests  and  efforts.  Every  part  of  this  huge 
machine  is  at  your  command.  Not  only  does  it  place  at 
your  disposal  all  the  modern  products  of  all  the  markets 
of  the  world,  but  it  ransacks  the  past  for  you,  and  the 
accumulated  treasures  of  the  ages  are  your  heritage. 
Thus  it  has  been  since  earliest  times.  Trade  has  made 
possible  the  interchange  of  knowledge  and  experience, 
and  so  contributed  to  the  development  of  style  in  archi- 
tecture. 

The  products  that  you  assemble  by  way  of  the  modern 
trade  routes  for  the  building  of  your  house,  and  the  ideals 
and  accumulated  knowledge  of  yourself  and  your  archi- 

10 


TRADE    AND    SCIENTIFIC    FACTORS 

tect,  will  unite  in  a  record  by  which  the  future  historian 
will  know  you  and  your  time  perhaps  better  than  you  do 
yourself. 

So  we  can  see  broadly  the  part  that  trade  plays  in  the 
life  of  the  world,  and  particularly  its  great  contribution 
to  the  development  of  human  expression  in  architecture. 
This  gives  us  a  special  reason  for  looking  back  into  history 
in  search  of  periods  of  great  trade  activity,  for  if  our  theory 
holds  good  they  will  be  found  associated  with  impor- 
tant eras  of  building  and  architectural  progress.  This  is 
indeed  the  case,  and  it  has  never  been  more  vividly  illus- 
trated than  in  our  own  country  to-day,  when  a  great  in- 
dustrial era  is  leaving  its  amazing  mark  in  an  astonishing 
architectural  outburst  which  we  shall  study  with  interest 
in  its  proper  place. 

We  are  concerned  now  with  beginnings,  with  the  orig- 
inal impetus  that  gave  us  modern  architecture.  We  find 
it  in  that  splendid  pageant  of  trade  through  the  inland 
seas  which  made  the  ancient  city  of  Byzantium,  afterward 
renamed  Constantinople,  the  commercial  centre  of  the 
world.  It  was  the  flood-tide  of  this  stream  of  commerce 
that  afterward  made  Athens  and  the  cities  of  Italy  great, 
and  that  opened  later  the  whole  of  western  Europe  to 
Grecian  and  Roman  culture. 

We  may  consider  briefly  the  trade  routes  of  an  earlier 
period.  These  made  Memphis  and  all  Egypt  rich  until, 
by  natural  and  very  modern  methods,  Nineveh  and  Baby- 
lon cut  them  off,  at  the  same  time  diverting  the  profits 
from  customs  to  themselves,  and  the  sea  trade  to  the 
ports  of  Tyre  and  Sidon.  Through  this,  Egypt  suffered 
loss  of  power  and  consequent  decadence  of  her  school  of 
architecture.  This  again  was,  in  later  days,  the  fate  of 

ii 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

the  Assyrian  cities  when  the  Greeks,  using  the  same 
tactics,  diverted  the  stream  of  wealth,  that  was  pouring 
into  the  West  from  the  East,  to  themselves,  by  way  of  the 
ancient  city  of  Trebizond,  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  Black 
Sea,  and  by  the  rivers  uniting  the  great  inland  lakes. 

Earlier  Byzantium  and  the  Greeks  also  had  the  ad- 
vantage of  a  distinct  and  shorter,  though  hardly  safer, 
route  into  the  North  and  Northwest,  in  addition  to  the 
Mediterranean  route.  This  was  by  way  of  the  Danube, 
that  back-door  to  Europe,  with  its  short  land  portage  to 
the  headwaters  of  the  Rhine  and  the  Elbe,  and  thence 
into  the  North  Sea.  By  this  route  a  side-current  ot 
Eastern  architectural  influence  entered  northern  Europe, 
to  reappear,  as  we  shall  see,  many  centuries  later. 

Let  us  take  a  sort  of  bird's-eye  view  of  the  great  trade 
routes  of  this  period,  using  Byzantium  as  the  centre.  Far  to 
the  East  and  to  the  South  are  the  camel  routes  of  the  Mon- 
golian traders,  their  endless  caravans  bringing  the  silks, 
jewels,  and  ivories  of  the  manufacturing  Orient  to  the 
Western  world.  Beyond  the  Caspian  Sea,  by  way  of 
Bokhara  and  Samarkand,  the  trail  branches,  running 
southward  to  India  to  gather  its  spices  and  fabrics  and 
to  give  in  exchange  the  metals  and  grain  of  the  North. 
From  the  Caspian,  by  the  Volga  and  the  Don,  to  the 
Black  Sea,  there  is  a  short  land  portage.  Otherwise,  for 
a  long  distance  inland,  the  lakes  and  rivers  offer  easier 

o 

routes,  as  water  transportation  is  cheaper  than  overland, 
and  in  every  case  advantage  is  taken  of  inland  seas  and 
navigable  rivers,  trade  travelling  along  the  lines  of  least 
resistance. 

Down  the  length  of  the  great  Black  Sea  the  stream  of 
Oriental  trade  pours  through  the  Dardanelles,  to  be  held 

12 


TRADE    AND    SCIENTIFIC    FACTORS 

up  for  tolls  at  imperious  Byzantium.  Little  wonder  that 
the  city  grew  rich  and  flourished.  It  held  the  key  to 
transportation  between  Europe  and  Asia. 

Down  through  the  isles  of  the  ./Egean  Sea  these  strange 
ancient  trade  routes  spread.  The  cities  dotted  along  the 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean  are  fed  and  grow  fat  upon 
them.  It  is  barter  or  trade  that  is  making  the  greatness 
of  Byzantium,  of  Carthage  and  Athens,  and  later  of 
Venice,  Naples,  Genoa,  and  Marseilles. 

Northward  and  westward  the  trade  routes  spread  to 
the  seaports  and  the  mouths  of  rivers,  in  the  land  which 
later  became  France  and  Germany,  with  a  portage  just 
north  of  the  Pyrenees  and  across  country  from  one  river 
to  another.  But  water  travel  for  freight  is  still  the 
cheaper,  and  before  long  we  find  the  trade  streams 
uniting  in  a  single  longer  one  that  runs  out  through 
the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  and,  by  the  open  Atlantic,  to  the 
western  coast  of  Europe  and  to  the  British  Isles  in  the 
far  North. 

Trade  is  subduing  the  wilderness.  Its  line  of  march 
from  Byzantium  is  consistently  northwestward.  Begin- 
ning in  the  ancient  Eastern  countries  we  call  Oriental- 
India,  Persia,  and  Assyria  —  trade  moves  forward  to 
Byzantium,  where  it  establishes  centres  for  the  develop- 
ment of  culture.  Following  westward  from  Byzantium, 
we  find  Athens  developing  into  a  central  power,  to  become, 
as  we  shall  see,  the  birthplace  of  modern  culture  and, 
especially,  of  our  architecture. 

Moving  still  westward,  we  find  Rome  becoming  the 
world  centre,  and  Venice  on  the  one  side  of  Italy  and 
Genoa  on  the  other,  because  of  their  geographical  situa- 
tion, becoming  great  and  influential  cities. 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

Thence  the  advance  starts  overland,  still  in  the  same 
direction,  for  the  reason  that  the  fighting  tribes  of  the 
Goths  and  Mongolians  kept  the  traders  from  the  North- 
east, and  the  Saracens  kept  them  from  entering  into 
Spain  on  the  Southwest,  the  mountain  ranges  on  either 
hand  assisting.  They  therefore,  of  necessity,  took  the 
middle  course,  the  land  of  the  Western  Franks  being  more 
or  less  civili/ed  and  open  to  foreign  influences.  Thus 
we  find  the  beautiful  valley  of  the  Loire,  which  stretches 
eastward  and  westward  across  France,  become  a  common 
trading-ground  for  the  Northern  tribes  and  the  men  of 
the  Mediterranean  regions.  Correspondingly,  we  find  a 
higher  degree  of  civilization  in  this  valley,  growing  from 
the  development  of  trade. 

We  shall  follow  this  great  trade  development  just  one 
step  further  before  taking  up  the  other  phase  of  our 
subject.  In  the  fifteenth  century  of  the  Christian  era 
(1453)  the  Turks  took  Constantinople,  and  thus  effec- 
tively blocked  the  main  trade  route  between  the  East 
and  the  West,  and  forced  the  Genoese  and  Venetian 
carriers  to  seek  other  routes.  It  is  but  a  few  years  after 
the  cutting-ofF  of  Eastern  trade  (in  1492)  that  we  find 
the  Genoese  sea-captain  Christopher  Columbus  setting 
sail  to  find  another  route  to  India,  and  landing,  as  he 
supposed,  in  the  island  of  japan.  A  few  years  later 
Africa  was  circumnavigated  by  Vasco  da  Gama  in  a 
similar  quest.  These  are  but  a  few  of  the  striking  ex- 
amples in  history  of  the  influence  of  trade  conditions  on 
world  progress.  I  propose  to  show  how  these  early  East- 
ern trade  currents,  which  we  have  been  viewing  from  the 
eminence  of  the  present,  were  the  real  forces  in  the  crea- 
tion of  our  heritage  of  architecture. 

'4 


TRADE    AND    SCIENTIFIC    FACTORS 

Up  to  the  time  of  its  subjugation  by  the  Romans,  which 
reached  its  climax  in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian 
era,  Europe  was  in  the  fullest  sense  a  barbaric  country. 
The  population  consisted  almost  entirely  of  marauding 
tribes.  The  only  culture  of  consequence  was  along  the 
great  Mediterranean  trade  routes  that  we  have  been  trac- 
ing, and  this  was  distinctly  Oriental  in  character.  Egypt, 
of  course,  had  its  marvellous  civilization  complete,  and 
its  influence  on  architecture  is  traceable  along  the  western 


FIG.  I — EGYPTIAN  COLUMNS  FROM  THE  TEMPLE  OF  LUXOR 

coast  of  Asia,  but  in  a  limited  degree,  as  the  particular 
building  material  of  the  country,  soft  sandstone  or  lime- 
stone, was  not  found  elsewhere  (Fig.  i). 

As  it  was,  India,  Persia,  and  Assyria,  especially  Assyria, 

'5 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

dominated  the  architecture  of  the  new  world.  Assyria, 
while  drawing  inspiration  from  Egypt,  had  continued  to 
individualize  itself  in  buildings  more  practical  and  grace- 
ful than  the  Egyptian,  primarily  because  of  its  use  of 
clay,  which  gave  a  brick  and  terra  -  cotta  architecture. 
Nineveh  was,  of  course,  the  fountain-head  of  Assyrian 
art  and  civilization,  and  the  trade  currents  were,  as  we 
have  seen,  northwestward  from  the  valleys  of  the  Tigris 
and  the  Euphrates,  so  that  we  find  Byzantium  growing 
up  under  these  Eastern  influences  a  wholly  Eastern  and 
largely  an  Assyrian  city. 

Until  recently  we  had  an  excellent  example  of  Egyptian 
architecture  in  the  old  Tombs  prison  in  New  York  City 
(Fig.  2).  The  demolition  of  this  gloomy  and  impractical 
but  mightily  impressive  old  pile  leaves  almost  no  example 
to  cite,  but  I  have  reproduced  Mielatz's  well-known  etch- 
ing of  the  Tombs,  and  this  gives  a  vivid  impression  of  its 
architecture.  The  style  is  associated  for  us  with  death 
and  mystery,  and  for  this  reason  it  has  been  used  occa- 
sionally for  entrances  to  cemeteries  and  for  lodge-rooms. 
We  are  happily  past  the  period  when  it  was  thought  fitting 
for  the  incarceration  of  the  law-breaker,  and  there  seems  no 
other  appropriate  use  to  which  its  darkness  and  massive- 
ness — almost  invariably  expressed  in  granite — can  be  put. 

Assyrian  and  Babylonian  architecture  is  subject  to 
much  the  same  comment  (Fig.  3).  It  is  curiously  lacking 
in  modern  expression,  and  has  never  been  used  in  its 
purity.  It,  of  course,  was  the  father  of  the  Greek,  though 
the  parentage  is  hardly  recognizable,  and  it  also  bears  a 
slight  relation  to  the  so-called  "art  nouveau,"  a  recent 
Austrian  attempt  to  modernize  the  flowing  line  and 
modelling  in  low  relief  of  the  East  (Fig.  4). 

16 


FIG.    2 — THE    OLD    TOMBS    PRISON,    NEW    YORK 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 


II  MM 

v  •<;)•  y  &  i?  --am 


FIG.  3 — AN  ASSYRIAN 
COLUMN,  PERSEPOUS 


Greek  culture,  which  later  was  to 
blossom  into  so  marvellous  a  thing, 
is  an  evolutionary  development  of  the 
arts  and  science  of  the  East,  and  its 
distinctive  character  came  chiefly  from 
the  human  medium  through  which  it 
passed  in  its  progress  to  the  Grecian 
mainland,  and  also  from  the  use  of 
marble  as  building  material  after  the 
influence  of  the  terra-cotta  Assyrian 
type  had  disappeared  (Fig.  5).  This 
medium  was  the  Ionian  Greek  colo- 
nists who  had  settled  along  the  shores 
of  Asia  Minor  and  the  Black  Sea. 
The  lonians  were  a  people  of  artistic 
sensibilities,  gay,  poetic,  inquiring,  and 
beauty -loving,  and  the  Oriental  art 
and  learning  which  followed  the  trad- 
ing vessels  along  their  shores  into  the 
West  found  susceptible  students  and 
interpreters  among  them.  Such  peo- 
ple were  naturally  idealists,  and  being 
also  highly  creative,  they  built  temples 
of  great  beauty  to  their  ideals.  The 
charm  of  these  Ionian  cities,  built  as 
they  were  along  one  of  the  most  beau- 
tiful coasts  in  the  world  and  by  a 
people  of  rare  qualities,  of  whom  it 
was  said  "they  had  no  enemies," 
must  have  been  great.  But  when  Croe- 
sus, King  of  Lydia,  before  the  great 
Persian  wars,  began  a  war  of  conquest, 
18 


TRADE    AND    SCIENTIFIC    FACTORS 


his  first  step  was  the  capture  and  destruction  of  the  Ionian 
cities.  The  beautiful  coast  was  laid  waste,  and  the  people 
were  forced  either  into  subjection  or  emigration.  Many 
chose  the  latter,  crossing  the  ^gean  Sea  either  to  the 
islands  or  to  the  Grecian  mainland,  where  their  influence 
in  the  advance  of  Athenian 
culture  was  of  the  greatest 
importance. 

Another  of  the  Greek 
tribes  inhabiting  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean  was 
the  Dorian.  In  disposition 
they  seem  to  have  been  just 
the  opposite  of  the  lonians. 
The  Dorians  were  conserva- 
tives, stern,  and  insensible 
to  outside  influences.  These 
people  also,  as  we  shall 
see,  contributed  to  the  glory 
of  the  Golden  Age  of 
Greece,  for  which  the  Per- 
sian wars  were  preparing 
the  way. 

By  this  time  religious  ideal- 
ism had  developed  to  such 

an  extent  that  each  group  of  men  had  its  own  especial 
gods  and  goddesses,  evolved  by  the  unfolding  but  still 
infantile  human  mind  after  its  own  image.  The  greater 
mysteries  of  life  had  created  strange  myths,  some  of  which 
seem  common  to  all  primitive  religions.  Ritualism  had 
developed  to  such  an  extent  that  the  priests  formed  a  class 
in  themselves  and  ruled  the  people  through  their  ignorance. 

'9 


FIG.  4-^ASSYRIAN    SCULPTURE 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 


The  sun  and  the  planets,  the  laws  of  generation,  the  rise 
and  fall  of  the  tides,  and  other  phenomena  of  nature  he- 
came  the  study  of  a  special  class  of  scientists,  who  erected 
temples  and  created  forms  to  tit  the  special  plan  of  wor- 
ship, evolving  a  ritual  that  seemed  most  effective  in  its 
power  over  the  people.  The  placing  of  the  figures  of  the 
god  in  the  temple  so  that  they  might  receive  the  sunbeam 
at  the  proper  moment,  the  shape  and  form  of  the  chamber, 
its  roof  and  orientation,  and  the  details  and  minor  parts  of 


FIG.    5 — AN     ASSYRIAN     CAPITAL     SHOWING     THE     ORIGIN     OF    THE 

IONIC 

the  buildings — all  grew  out  of  the  needs  of  a  ritual  created 
by  the  racial  characteristics  of  the  various  tribes  and 
nations.  So  we  have  the  creation  of  national  types  of 
architecture  and  the  beginning  of  a  strong  northwesterly 


20 


TRADE    AND    SCIENTIFIC    FACTORS 

tide  of  conquest,  commerce,  and  culture,  along  the  route 
of  which  we  may  expect  to  trace  the  sources  of  our  own 
architectural,  scientific,  and  religious  heritage. 

There  is  a  grammar  to  this  language  we  call  architect- 
ure, a  few  of  the  fundamentals  of  which  we  should  have 
clearly  in  mind  before  attempting  to  read  the  language. 
To  say  it  is  the  whole  science  of  building  is  hardly  saying 
too  much  and  comes  nearest  to  my  own  thought.  Yet 
architecture  is  also  an  art,  for  it  involves  the  creation  of 
beauty  through  the  action  of  imagination  and  enthu- 
siasm. 

But  there  is  one  type  of  definition  that  I  vigorously 
object  to.  That  is  the  kind  that,  like  Ruskin's,  limits  ar- 
chitecture merely  to  the  ornamental  treatment  of  the  basic 
structure.  To  Ruskin  the  union  of  four  unadorned  walls 
with  their  requisite  openings  and  a  protecting  cover  on 
top  was  not  architecture.  To  me  these  essentials  seem  the 
very  basis  of  architecture,  as  the  skeleton  is  the  basis  of 
the  human  figure.  Buildings  were  created  for  protection 
either  from  the  elements  or  from  foes.  Their  primary  and 
essential  quality  is  therefore  stability,  giving  security. 
Every  building,  then,  to  be  true  as  a  production  for  a 
practical  purpose,  must  be  strong,  stable,  balanced,  and  as 
a  work  of  art,  continuing  "in  character,"  it  must  look  so. 

Beauty  is  a  great  deal  more  than  skin  deep,  for  one  of 
its  essential  qualities  is  suitability,  fitness.  There  is,  in 
fact,  in  suitability  a  fine  and  abiding  spirit  of  beauty.  The 
mere  fact  that  a  simple  kettle  is  perfectly  suited  to  its  work 
of  boiling  water  over  a  fire  and  discharging  it  hot  into 
another  vessel  gives  it  a  mysterious  and  essential  dowry 
of  loveliness.  So  a  building  that  merely  fulfils  its  primary 
task  of  protecting  and  fulfils  that  task  well  in  all  particu- 
3  21 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

lars  is  to  that  limited  extent  a  work  of  art,  and  that  art  is 
architecture. 

The  ordinary  building  is  a  protection  against  the  ele- 
ments and  the  ravages  of  man.  The  chief  forces  that 
question  its  stability  are  the  elements,  human  assaults,  and 
gravity.  Obviously  the  most  potent  and  constant  is  the 
force  of  gravity.  Resistance  to  gravity  presupposes,  first, 
the  idea  of  adequate  vertical  support,  and,  second,  that  of 
balance.  This  latter,  the  moment  your  building  is  con- 
sidered <Tsthetically — or  as  to  its  effect  on  the  mind  and 
emotions  of  men — becomes  harmony.  In  harmony  you 
have  the  key  to  the  grammar  of  architecture. 

This  matter  of  support  and  balance  (to  use  the  more 
practical  terms)  colors  practically  every  thought  that  the 
designer  gives  to  his  plan  for  a  building,  and  is  his  actual 
first  consideration.  A  plan  begins  with  and  is  built  upon 
an  imaginary  or  constructional  centre  line  which  we  call 
the  main  axis — that  is,  theoretically  at  least,  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  mass.  Everything  now  that  goes  into 
the  plan  must  be  considered  in  its  relation  to  this  axis. 
For  comparison,  in  a  chord  of  music,  the  notes,  or  black 
and  white  spots,  are  in  harmony  or  out  of  harmony,  ac- 
cording to  the  relation  they  bear  to  one  another  and  to  the 
supporting  five  horizontal  lines. 

This  main  axis  may  pass  through  the  true  centre  of 
the  mass  or  it  may  not.  It  may  parallel  the  true  centre 
on  either  side,  or  may  cut  it  at  any  angle.  Nevertheless, 
it  remains  the  controlling  factor  in  the  composition,  and 
it  would  be  a  really  amazing  accident  if  a  building  planned 
without  regard  to  a  central  axis  should  prove  "true"  in 
the  architectural  sense  (Fig.  6). 

But  not  only  must  there  be  balance  of  main  divisions. 

22 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

Each  part  must  balance  the  other  parts  of  its  own  divisions 
and  must  itself  have  balance.  Therefore,  in  the  structural 
plan  we  have  numerous  minor  axes  for  each  of  the  parts. 
The  rooms  of  one  half  of  a  house,  for  instance,  must 
balance  those  of  the  other  half.  They  must  also  balance 
each  other,  and  must  in  their  individual  proportions  be 
in  balance.  Windows  must  be  in  relation  to  opposite 
windows,  to  those  above  and  below  them,  to  the  other 
windows  of  that  room  and  the  proportions  of  that  room, 
and  finally  must  of  themselves  be  balanced. 

This  requirement  of  balance,  moreover,  applies  not 
only  to  mass,  but  also  to  color,  to  decorative  treatment,  to 
that  somewhat  elusive  characteristic  known  as  texture, 
and  to  form  in  all  its  variations.  And,  oddly,  balance 
may  be  interchanged  among  these  elements.  A  lack  of 
balance  in  the  mass,  for  instance,  may  be  overcome  by  a 
skilful  use  of  color  or  texture,  and  a  solid  may  even  be 
balanced  by  a  void,  a  circle  by  a  square. 

The  grammar  of  architecture  includes  many  other  laws, 
all,  however,  subject  to  this  main  one  of  harmony  or  pro- 
portion. There  are,  for  example,  rules  of  orientation, 
which  regulate  the  building  in  its  relation  to  the  points  of 
the  compass.  The  defective  placing  of  an  otherwise  per- 
fect building  would  be  to  that  extent  bad  architecture. 
Then  there  is  the  more  subtle  requirement  of  contrast, 
which  requires  relief  from  monotony  in  mass  and  super- 
ficial treatment.  This  is,  of  course,  a  purely  aesthetic 
consideration,  but  it  is  important. 

The  maximum  of  balance  might  be  obtained  in  a  build- 
ing of  which  the  four  sides  were  squares,  perfectly  regular 
in  treatment  and  all  exactly  alike.  Yet  the  monotony  of 
it  would  be  almost  paralyzing.  An  oblong  is  always 

24 


TRADE    AND    SCIENTIFIC    FACTORS 

more  pleasing  than  a  square,  the  difference  between  the 
long  and  short  side  giving  contrast,  and  therefore  add- 
ing value  to  each.  A  square  Parthenon  would  have 
been  fatal  to  our  admiration  for  Athenian  fineness  of 
sensibility.  When,  in  these  days,  it  is  necessary  to  build 
in  cube  form  we  use  strong  horizontal  or  perpendicular 
members  to  accentuate  either  the  height  or  the  length. 
Thus  we  practically  falsify  the  proportions  to  avoid 
monotony. 

The  stories  of  a  building  are  frequently  indicated  out- 
side by  decorative  belts  or  bands,  which  serve  to  tie  to- 
gether the  elements  of  the  composition.  Again,  the  per- 
pendicular supports,  whether  post,  column,  or  buttress, 
must  carry  your  eye  to  the  ground  so  as  to  satisfy  your 
aesthetic  sense  that  they  fulfil  their  purpose  of  carrying  a 
load  securely. 

This  perpendicular  support,  with  the  horizontal  beam 
it  carries,  whether  of  wood,  marble,  or  steel,  and  what- 
ever its  size  or  proportions,  is  post  and  lintel  construction, 
the  structural  basis  of  all  architecture.  So  true  is  this 
principle  that  the  treatment  of  the  vertical  supports  forms 
a  basis  for  the  classification  of  practically  all  architecture. 


CHAPTER   III 


GRKEK    FACTORS 

RECIAN  activities  in  architectural  de- 
velopment grew  on  the  foundations  of 
philosophical  and  practical  analysis  of 
constructive  work,  which  preceded  them. 
We  have  all  heard  of  the  buildings  of 
ancient  Athens  as  the  supreme  crea- 
tion of  their  kind,  and  most  of  us 
have  doubtless  wondered  why  this  is  so  and  how  it  came 
to  be. 

Athens  is  the  birthplace  of  all  our  modern  architecture. 
Its  style  of  building  has  come  to  be  known  as  the  classic, 
and  this  style,  modified  but  little  by  various  transplant- 
ings  and  reinterpretations,  is  the  dominant  style,  if  there 
is  one,  in  our  own  country  to-day.  Our  so-called  colonial 
style  is  classic,  nearly  all  our  important  government  build- 
ings are  designed  on  the  basis  of  the  Grecian  temple,  and 
there  is  at  present  a  marked  general  tendency  to  build  the 
home  of  financial  institutions,  libraries,  museums,  post- 
offices,  and  court-houses  in  some  interpretation  of  this 
style.  It  is  thus  obvious  that  Greek  architecture  has  a 
peculiar  fitness  for  our  time,  and  this  significance  will 
grow  clearer  as  we  advance. 

It  is  our  purpose  in  this  chapter  to  discover  the  human 

26 


GREEK    FACTORS 

influences  that  carried  classic  architecture  to  its  zenith 
in  the  "Golden  Age  of  Pericles,"  a  period  that  has  pro- 
foundly influenced  the  culture  of  all  Europe  and  of  these 
United  States. 

.The  Greeks  before  the  age  of  Pericles  had  developed 
the  science  of  architecture  through  its  wooden  and  terra- 
cotta transitional  periods  of  Assyrian  ancestry,  and  had 
formulated  laws  based  on  constructional  necessity  and 
custom,  many  of  which  are  applicable  to-day.  Their 
architects  had  the  greatest  freedom,  being  considered  as 
above  both  sculptor  and  painter,  for  they  did  not  work 
with  their  hands.  They  studied  under  the  great  philoso- 
phers, collected  libraries,  and  travelled  extensively  in  the 
Greek  colonies  and  in  foreign  countries. 

Chersiphron  seems  to  have  been  the  leading  architect 
of  those  who  immediately  preceded  the  age  of  Pericles. 
He  built  the  Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus  in  the  sixth 
century  B.C.,  a  period  of  change  from  the  earlier  methods, 
and  an  era  of  discoveries  and  new  ideas  in  building. 
Ictinus  worked  with  Phidias,  the  sculptor,  at  the  period 
when  Grecian  architecture,  and  the  allied  arts  of  sculpt- 
ure and  decoration,  had  reached  its  perfection  under 
Pericles  in  the  fifth  century  B.C.  Later,  under  Alexander, 
the  Greek  Dinocrates,  architect  of  the  new  city  of  Alex- 
andria, became  the  leader.  But  it  required  something 
more  than  the  ability  of  an  artist,  or  group  of  artists, 
to  achieve  any  really  overpowering  work  of  genius.  The 
inspiration  of  a  common  and  compelling  ideal  was  lacking 
in  Greece  until  the  days  of  Pericles,  and  therefore  the 
architecture  before  his  time  is  of  interest  chiefly  to  stu- 
dents wishing  to  trace  the  preparatory  development  for 
the  outburst  of  the  Golden  Age. 

27 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

The  Persian  wars,  which  gave  us  Marathon  ami  Ther- 
mo pyl.T,  placed  Greece  at  the  head  of  the  world  and 
Athens  at  the  head  of  Greece,  according  to  the  Greek 
historian  Diodorus.  This  terrific  war  developed  the  co- 
hesion of  the  Greek  trihes  as  nothing  else  could  have 
done,  and  it  especially  developed  the  fighting  power  of 
the  already  influential  Athenians.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
dramatic  periods  in  the  world's  history,  especially  when 
examined  as  to  its  effect  in  producing  a  period  of  creative 
culture  that  we  still  must  marvel  at,  but  it  can  be  but 
lightly  touched  upon  here. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  Persian  war  we  find  Athens 
practically  in  charge  of  the  defensive  forces,  and  levying 
upon  the  other  cities  and  colonies  tribute  of  ships  and 
men  for  the  defence  of  the  nation.  When  the  war  ended 
in  480  B.C.,  with  the  rout  of  Xerxes,  Athens  was  still 
levying  tribute,  and  it  had  become  money  instead  of  ships 
and  men.  So  we  have  the  spectacle  of  a  city  grown  sud- 
denly rich,  powerful,  and  prideful,  and  getting  rapidly 
richer,  by  a  heavy  dole  of  taxes  upon  her  numerous  de- 
pendencies and  by  a  rapidly  increasing  foreign  trade. 
The  result  of  this  dangerous  condition  upon  the  Athenians 
is  doubtful  until  we  recognize  the  dominance  of  the  Ionic 
temperament  in  the  city.  With  all  their  pride  of  mastery 
by  strength  in  war,  the  Athenians  were  a  beauty-loving, 
a  poetic,  an  idealistic  people.  Their  campaigns  had 
brought  them  a  vast  amount  of  looted  treasure  which 
in  itself  was  a  stimulus  to  artistic  endeavor,  for  it  com- 
prehended the  very  cream  of  the  world's  art  wealth  at 
that  time,  outside,  of  course,  the  vast  hidden  treasures  of 
India  and  China. 

But  it  remained  for  an  individual  to  crystalli/e  the 

28 


GREEK    FACTORS 

energies  of  Athens  into  a  creative  production  the  wonder 
of  which  inspired  Milton's  sonorous  tribute: 

"Where  on   the  ^Egean  shore   a  city  stands, 
Built  nobly,   pure  the   air  and   light   the   soil; 
Athens,   the  eye  of  Greece,   mother  of  Arts   and 
Eloquence." 

It  is  a  truism  of  historical  philosophy  that  the  apices 
of  human  achievement  have  invariably  been  made  pos- 
sible by  the  life  of  a  single  individual.  As  the  foundation 
of  every  movement  of  human  progress,  you  will  find 
some  dominant  personality.  A  fact  that  repeats  itself 
from  Moses  to  Abraham  Lincoln  through  the  centuries. 
The  genius  of  Pericles  gave  to  civilization  the  Golden 
Age  of  Athens. 

This   fact   colors    all   history   with    strange   and    unex- 

O 

pected  radiances.  It  tinges  the  most  technical  of  its  de- 
partments with  an  intense  human  interest  that  links  it 
with  ourselves.'  We  have  already  avowed  our  intention 
of  trying  to  make  this  plain  in  our  studies  of  architecture. 
To  me  the  evolution  of  architectural  styles  has  always 
been  a  subject  of  fascinating  interest,  but  it  is  less  so 
because  as  an  architect  this  knowledge  is  part  of  my 
technical  equipment  than  because  my  studies  have  al- 
ways brought  me  face  to  face  with  human  events,  with 
the  march  of  civilization,  the  dawning  of  new  ideas  in 
the  mind  of  man  under  stress  of  conditions,  and  with 
individuals  of  great  force  or  great  genius  who  are  other- 
wise very  much  like  ourselves. 

What  I  have  said  of  the  influence  of  individuals  on  all 
great  movements  is  peculiarly  true  of  Greece's  Golden 
Age  of  Science — or,  if  you  prefer  it,  Art — and  Idealism. 

29 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

After  the  end  of  the  Persian  war,  Athens  continued  as  a 
democracy  with  two  political  parties,  the  one  in  power 
that  of  the  aristocrats,  the  other  that  of  the  plain  people. 
Cimon,  the  leader  of  the  ruling  faction,  was  an  aristocrat 
of  the  hide-bound  conservative  sort  familiar  in  all  times 
and  countries,  including  our  own.  His  opponent  was 
Pericles,  a  distinguished  example  of  a  rare  and  admirable 
type.  He  was  as  blue-blooded  as  Cimon,  exquisitely 
aristocratic  in  appearance,  in  manners,  and  in  tastes,  but 
broad  enough  and  clever  enough  to  have  a  genuine 
sympathy  and  affection  for  the  plebeians.  He  was  the 
original  "woikingman's  friend." 

Pericles  was  a  brilliant  orator,  a  profound  thinker,  a 
musician,  and  an  art  lover  of  the  finest  discrimination. 
In  many  respects  he  was  in  advance  of  his  time.  As  a 
practical  statesman  he  feared  his  own  aristocratic  ten- 
dencies, and  sought  to  democratize  himself  by  mingling 
in  a  dignified  way  with  the  plain  people.  He  consist- 
ently pursued  the  policy  of  giving  the  people  more  and 
more  personal  freedom,  and  of  arousing  their  higher 
patriotism  and  self-respect  by  turning  over  to  them  an 
active  part  in  the  government.  One  of  his  innovations 
was  to  pay  the  legislators  and  jurymen,  so  that  poor  men 
could  afford  to  serve.  He  was  a  vigorous  advocate  of 
popular  education,  going  so  far  as  to  train  hundreds  of 
Athenians  in  seamanship  each  year  at  the  expense  of  the 
state.  He  encouraged  public  speaking  of  an  instructive 
sort,  fought  superstition,  which  rested  like  a  cloud  on  the 
Greeks  up  to  that  time,  and  provided  public  entertain- 
ments of  an  advanced  character.  To  keep  up  the  stand- 
ard of  Athenian  citizenship,  he  carried  out  colonization 
projects  for  the  vagabond  unemployed  who  always 

3° 


GREEK    FACTORS 

thronged  the  cities  in  those  war-like  times,  and  he  spent 
much  money  in  public  works  to  give  livelihood  to  the 
better  element  of  the  laboring  classes. 

We  thus  see,  under  the  incomparable  Pericles,  the 
creation  of  new  and  vastly  higher  ideals  and  their  in- 
culcation among  the  masses  of  a  susceptible,  high-strung, 
and  creative  people.  We  naturally  expect  to  find  this 
people  building  temples  to  these  new  ideals  that  would 
give  adequate  expression  of  the  loftier  thought.  And 
we  are  not  disappointed. 

As  Pericles  was  the  political  and  ethical  inspiration  of  the 
Golden  Age,  so  was  he  the  inspiration  of  the  scientific  and 
artistic  activities  that  record  the  change.  Athens  was  thus 
rarely  favored,  in  that,  having  secured  a  ruler  of  true 
greatness,  it  did  not  have  to  look  elsewhere  to  have  his 
achievements  immortalized.  Pericles  took  the  initiative 
in  the  encouragement  of  all  the  arts,  but  it  was  especially 
due  to  him  that  the  Acropolis  was  crowned  with  the 
group  of  monumental  buildings  which  remain  to  this  day 
one  of  the  supreme  achievements  of  man  in  architecture. 
To  what  extent  this  was  due  to  the  personal  taste  and 
knowledge  of  the  First  Citizen  it  is  not  possible  to  deter- 
mine definitely.  It  may  have  been  the  spontaneous  and 
inevitable  expression  of  the  marvellous  civic  sentiment 
that  is  so  marked  a  keynote  of  the  period. 

But  it  was  the  enlightened  attitude  and  enthusiasm  of 
Pericles  for  the  arts  that  brought  poets  and  sculptors 
and  builders  from  all  parts  of  the  Old  World  to  Athens, 
and  that  developed  an  activity  resulting  in  native  talent 
of  unexampled  splendor.  The  achievements  of  this  time 
are  the  more  amazing  when  the  brief  length  of  the 
productive  period  is  considered.  The  Persian  war  ended, 

31 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

as  we  have  seen,  in  480  B.C.,  and  although  Athens 
began  making  gigantic  commercial  strides  soon  after,  it 
was  nearly  thirty  years  later  when  Pericles  began  to 
make  himself  felt  as  a  political  and  social  power  in  the 
city.  As  he  died  in  429,  his  active  civic  life  was  little  more 
than  twenty  years,  and  this  was  the  length  of  the  Golden 
Age.  For,  after  the  death  of  Pericles,  Athens  found  itself 
in  the  hands  of  professional  politicians  who  took  little 
heed  of  the  patriotic  and  far-sighted  plans  of  the  Olympian, 
as  he  was  called,  and  soon  involved  the  Grecian  metrop- 
olis in  such  a  turmoil  of  internal  and  external  strife  that 
art  and  science,  high  thinking,  and  high  living  declined. 
There  was  only  one  Golden  Age  for  Greece,  but  it  laid 
the  foundations  for  the  artistic  progress  of  the  whole 
Western  world. 

At  first  glance  it  may  not  be  apparent  that  our  build- 
ings of  to-day  bear  any  relation  to  the  glorious  temples 
of  the  Greek  Acropolis,  but  even  a  hasty  comparison  will 
reveal  the  line  of  descent.  If  the  reader  will  at  this 
time  accept  a  primary  lesson  in  structural  architecture, 
I  suggest  that  he  make  an  examination  of  his  own 
house  while  in  process  of  construction.  Any  ordinary 
wooden  building  will  serve  this  purpose,  for  the  rules 
to  be  illustrated  are  the  same.  It  is  best,  however,  to 
find  one  in  which  the  framework  is  visible.  Or  he  may 
visit  with  me  a  New  Hampshire  barn  built  in  the  early 
sixties,  which  is  an  excellent  example  of  primitive  build- 
ing principles — in  fact,  of  the  principles  universal  in  all 
buildings  using  perpendicular  supports  with  horizontal 
ties  on  the  post  and  lintel  construction.  This,  as  we  have 
seen,  will  include  not  only  the  homes  and  temples  of  pre- 
historic man  and  the  ante-bellum  barn  of  my  old  North 

32 


GREEK    FACTORS 


Country  friend  Lovejoy,  but  also  the  most  majestic  crea- 
tions of  the  Athenian  architects  (Fig.  7). 

Let  us  examine  the  barn,  and  at  the  same  time  your 
own  house,  if  you  will.  Resting  on  its  stone  foundation 
is  a  boundary  frame  of  heavy 
timbers,  called  the  sill.  This 
sill  is  merely  a  resting  -  place 
for  the  main  upright  supports, 
used  as  a  tie,  and  to  prevent 
the  ends  of  the  posts  rotting 
by  coming  in  contact  with  the 
damp  stone  wall  or  splitting 
under  the  superimposed  load. 
The  uprights  are  heavy,  and 
placed  at  regular  intervals. 
They  are  protected  from  split- 
ting at  the  top  also  by  a  block 
of  wood,  the  progenitor  of  the 
capital,  or  head,  of  the  Greek 
column.  Upon  these  rests  the 
lintel,  or  plate,  which  is  the 
upper  duplicate  of  the  sill,  and 
is  also  of  heavy  timber,  as  it 
must  support  the  superstruct- 
ure. The  basis  of  this  super- 
structure, or  roof,  is  the  truss, 
a  triangular  frame  of  timbers 
set  at  intervals  from  wall  to  wall  of  the  building  and 
giving  its  shape  to  the  roof.  Upon  the  chords  or  up- 
per timbers  of  the  truss  smaller  timbers,  called  purlins, 
run  lengthwise.  These  are  for  the  support  of  the  roof 
rafters,  which,  of  course,  run  from  the  plate,  or  lintel,  to 

33 


FIG.   7 — NEW    HAMPSHIRE 
BARN    FRAME 


HOW   TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

the  ridge,  or  peak,  of  the  roof.  The  projection  of  these 
rafters  beyond  the  wall  form  the  eaves,  or  cornice. 

We  thus  have  three  sets  of  beams  running  lengthwise — 
sill,  plate,  and  purlin;  one  set  of  uprights,  the  posts,  and 
two  across — trusses  and  rafters — arranged  for  horizontal 
and  perpendicular  support,  and  also  serving  to  tie  the 
building  together.  These  elements  are  essential  to  any 
building  of  consequence  to-day,  and  they  were  used  to- 
gether before  the  time  of  Greece. 

Now  the  roof  being  on  and  the  walls  covered  up  to 
the  lintel,  we  find  an  open  space  which  will  be  the  height 
of  the  truss  timber  all  around  between  the  lintel  and  the 
first  purlin,  divided  into  regular  lengths  by  the  ends  of 
the  truss-beams.  In  our  barn,  and  in  all  modern  build- 
ings, these  spaces  are  boarded  up.  In  early  times,  as 
among  primitive  peoples  to-day,  the  buildings  were  heated 
by  open  fires  in  the  middle  of  the  floor,  and  these  spaces 
were  left  open  to  let  out  the  smoke.  They,  however, 
made  convenient  receptacles  for  the  trophies  of  the  hunt, 
or  of  war,  and  seem  to  have  been  regularly  used  as  re- 
positories or  hanging-places  for  skulls,  skins,  shields,  and 
arms,  and  in  our  barn  for  straps,  bolts,  bottles,  scythes, 
blades,  or  what-not.  A  most  curious  survival  of  this  is 
found  in  the  Greek  temples  (Fig.  8).  Here  this  space, 
with  the  truss  or  beam  ends  showing,  became  the  frie/e. 
The  beam  ends  were  duplicated,  ornamented,  and  called 
triglyphs,  while  the  intervening  spaces,  or  metopes,  were 
filled  with  slabs  carved  in  relief  with  skulls,  or  shields,  or 
trophies  of  the  chase  and  of  war,  a  practice  that  is  con- 
tinued by  architects  in  the  classic  to  this  day. 

The  relation  between  the  primitive  dwelling,  the  Ameri- 
can barn,  your  own  house,  and  the  Greek  temple  is  quite 

34 


FIG.   8 — GREEK    STONE    CONSTRUCTION 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

as  intimate  in  all  parts  as  in  this.  Let  us  examine  the 
Parthenon  as  a  typical  example  of  the  Greek  classic,  to 
get  a  clearer  idea  of  what  the  main  resemblances  are 

(Fig-  9)- 

With   the   barn   in   mind,   our   first  impression   of  the 

Parthenon  is  that  it  is  wholly  different  in  being  surrounded 
by  a  row  of  round  stone  columns.  We  must  remember, 
however,  that  the  primitive  house  was  not  walled  up 
necessarily  with  boards  on  the  outside,  but  with  skins  of 
animals  stretched  and  tied  between  the  posts,  which  were 
merely  trunks  of  trees.  When,  however,  wooden  walls 
came  into  use,  it  is  as  likely  as  not  that  they  were  placed 
inside  the  posts,  primitive  man  as  we  know  him  not  being 
unduly  willing  to  sacrifice  his  own  pleasure  merely  to 
secure  the  good  opinion  of  his  neighbor. 

In  the  Parthenon  we  really  have  a  comparatively  close 
resemblance  to  the  primitive  house,  the  main  difference 
being  in  the  use  of  stone  instead  of  wood,  in  the  elabora- 
tion of  decorative  detail,  and  in  the  consummate  balance 
of  proportions.  Structurally,  the  resemblance  to  the 
American  barn  is  also  curiously  close. 

Here,  for  example,  is  the  sill  upon  which  the  columns 
rest.  On  them,  but  separated  as  in  the  wooden  house 
by  a  block,  or  cap,  is  the  lintel,  now  called  an  architrave, 
and  thereafter  is  the  truss-beam,  or  triglyph,  one  over  each 
column  and  repeated  between  columns  at  regular  inter- 
vals, to  give  an  added  impression  of  stability.  Between 
the  triglyphs,  as  we  have  seen,  are  the  decorative  metopes, 
filling  the  spaces  no  longer  needed  for  the  escape  of 
smoke. 

Without  going  too  deeply  into  the  decorative  detail  of 
the  Parthenon,  an  undertaking  that  would  carry  us  far 

36 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

off  the  route  of  our  peregrinations,  1  should  like  to  speak 
here  of  a  decorative  treatment  or  tnglyfi/is  which  presents 
a  Greek  refinement  extremely  characteristic  of  the  period. 
These  beam  ends,  delicately  fluted  with  perpendicular 
channels,  are  not  allowed  to  end  at  the  top  of  the  archi- 
trave as  if  they  rested  on  it,  but  are  made  to  appear 
below  a  narrow  fillet,  or  band,  in  the  face  of  the  lintel 
itself,  as  if  set  in  for  greater  stability.  The  value  of  this 
is  not,  in  the  stone,  structural,  however,  but  evolutional, 
showing  logical  methods  of  tying  truss  to  wooden  plate,  to 
avoid  side  slip.  It  serves  to  link  the  motives  of  frieze  and 
architrave  together  in  a  way  that  is  most  subtly  pleasing, 
an  effect  that  is  enhanced  by  the  added  decorative  detail 
of  rows  of  gutfcr,  or  conventionalized  raindrops,  under 
the  fillet.  It  was  the  treatment  of  such  delicate  details 
as  this  that  gave  the  Greeks  pre-eminence. 

The  ends  of  the  rafters  of  the  wooden  house  are  repre- 
sented by  modillions,  molded  brackets,  or  cut  blocks  of 
wood,  which,  while  appearing  to  support  the  projection 
of  the  cornice  over  the  entablature  and  column,  are  really 
merely  decorative  modifications  of  no  value  except  to 
enhance  the  impression  of  strength  and  the  richness  of 
light  and  shade  effects.  The  cornice  itself  was  developed 
to  a  considerable  degree,  but  this  has  little  relation  to  the 
wooden  prototype,  as  it  is  almost  entirely  a  decorative 
development.  One  feature  of  it,  however,  is  worth  notice. 
The  ornaments  which  project  from  the  face  of  the  various 
moldings  for  shadow  spots,  which  give  value  to  plain 
surfaces  or  low  relief  decorations,  were  invariably  placed 
over  the  vertical  supenmposition  oftnglyph  and  modillwn 
upon  the  column,  carrying  out  the  vertical  effect  to 
which  I  have  already  alluded. 

38 


GREEK    FACTORS 

These  cornices  were  made  up  of  grouped  moldings 
and  bands  of  ornaments.  The  dentil  (from  a  word  mean- 
ing tooth)  showed  a  continuous  row  of  small  blocks 
separated  by  a  space  equal  to  about  two-thirds  of  the  face 
of  the  block.  ''The  egg  and  dart"  was  a  series  of  egg- 
shaped  forms,  separated  by  a  point  resembling  a  spear- 
head carved  on  a  quarter  -  round  molding.  An  inter- 
laced ornament  called  the  honeysuckle  pattern  is  much 
used,  and  a  series  of  cut  lines  taking  the  form  of  the 
molding  somewhat  similar  to  the  egg  and  dart  is  char- 
acteristic. The  soffit,  or  under  side  of  the  overhang  of 
the  cornice,  was  divided  into  squares  decorated  with  orna- 
ments and  with  panels. 

We  have,  as  you  remember,  the  architrave,  or  lintel, 
which  was  lined  horizontally  with  plain  bands,  the  frieze 
with  the  perpendicular  tnglyph  and  the  cornice  with  its 
various  parts — the  whole,  an  entablature  which  gave  to 
the  classic  its  distinction  as  a  horizontal  type  of  archi- 
tecture. You  must  remember,  also,  that  in  composing 
this  group  of  decorated  and  plain  bands  and  moldings 
the  value  of  each  member  depended  on  its  relation  to 
its  neighbor,  and  on  the  effect  of  light  and  shadow. 

The  friezes  and  cornices  were  richly  decorated,  and  a 
considerable  latitude  was  given  the  builder  for  individual 
expression  therein.  But  the  chief  concern  was  the  column. 
The  most  loving  care  and  the  supremest  skill  of  Greece's 
greatest  builders  must  have  been  devoted  to  its  perfection 
and  its  effective  use. 

In  its  long  and  slow  development  up  to  Greek  times 
the  builders  wrought  from  their  failures  many  set  rules 
for  its  proportions  and  decoration,  these  differing  in  de- 
tail, of  course,  in  the  various  countries.  But  none  of  the 

39 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

pre- Greek  columns  are  of  sufficient  excellence  to  influ- 
ence directly  any  of  the  architecture  that  has  a  hearing 
on  our  own.  The  Greek  development  of  the  column 
is  the  architectural  high-C  of  the  Golden  Age,  and  its 
Individ ualization  makes  a  sort  of  keynote  to  all  their 
architectural  orders. 

It  is  for  these  various  reasons  that  the  columns,  with 
their  caps,  form  the  basis  for  the  classification  of  all 
classic  buildings. 

The  simplest  of  these  forms  is  that  used  in  the  Parthe- 
non, and  is  called  the  Doric.  The  Dorians,  from  whom 
it  got  its  name,  were  a  branch  of  the  great  Greek  family 
scattered  from  Sicily  to  the  shores  of  Asia  Minor  (the 
Spartans  were  Dorians).  Unlike  most  of  the  other  Gre- 
cians, they  were  a  stern  and  apparently  puritanical  sort, 
much  given  to  a  severe  dignity,  worshipping  austere  gods 
and  building  grim  temples  to  harsh  ideals.  Thus  the 
Doric  order  is  of  the  simplest  and  most  dignified  con- 
struction. The  column  has  no  base,  and  in  height  is  but 
eight  times  the  diameter  (the  sturdiest  of  all  the  Grecian 
forms),  its  use  giving  a  powerful  impression  of  solidity 
and  strength.  The  square  block  that  capped  the  post  of 
the  wooden  building  as  a  resting-place  for  the  lintel  is  still 
a  plain,  square  block  in  the  Doric,  it  having  acquired  noth- 
ing but  the  Greek  name  of  abacus,  destined  to  become 
its  technical  designation  for  all  time.  Between  the  "neck " 
of  the  shaft  and  the  abacus,  however,  another  member  has 
crept  in.  It  is  a  supporting  molding  larger  than  the 
shaft,  and  intended  as  a  resting-place  for  the  abacus.  In 
its  simplest  Greek  form  its  shape  is  a  graceful  and  irregu- 
lar upward  and  outward  curve  with  one  or  more  delicately 
incised  fillets  or  bands  where  it  meets  and  starts  from  the 

40 


GREEK    FACTORS 


neck  of  the  shaft.  This  mold- 
ing, which  is  called  an  echinus,  is 
of  value  in  carrying  the  eyes  from 
the  slender  shaft  gradually  into  the 
broad,  heavy  superstructure,  thus 
giving  an  added  impression  of  sta- 
bility (Fig.  10). 

You  can  see  how  apt  an  expres- 
sion of  the  Dorian  character  the 
Doric  column  is,  and  the  same  is 
true  of  all  other  parts  of  the  build- 
ings designed  in  this  style.  While 
the  Athenian  character  was  in  the 
main  far  from  Dorian,  there  was 
a  stern  side  to  the  idealism  of  this 
city  of  warriors.  Therefore,  they 
built  temples  expressing  ideas  em- 
bodying strength  and  solemnity  in 
the  Doric  order.  The  Parthenon, 
which  was  a  temple  to  the  sover- 
eign deity  of  the  city,  is,  as  we  have 
seen,  a  superb  example  of  this  order. 

When  the  Athenians  built  to 
some  less  serious  ideal  or  for  a 
lighter  purpose,  they  used  a  more 
graceful  and  rather  more  ornate 
style  of  architecture,  now  called  the 
Ionic.  You  will  remember  that  we 
found  colonies  of  Ionian  Greeks 
flourishing  on  the  shores  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  that  they  were  a  peo- 
ple of  sunny  disposition,  lovers  of 


FIG.    Id DORIC    COLUMN 

FROM  THE  TEMPLK   OF 

HERCULES,    AGRI- 

GENTUM 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

grace  and  beauty,  poetry,  and  music.  These  people,  by 
reason  of  their  Eastern  habitat,  must  have  come  into  con- 
tact with  the  Oriental  peoples,  (Babylonians,  Persians,  and 
Assyrians),  and  when  their  cities  were  captured  and  de- 
stroyed by  Croesus  and  because  of  their  trade  connections 
many  of  them  returned  to  the  Grecian  mainland  rilled 
with  the  art  traditions  and  forms  of  the  Kast.  Thus,  with 
that  strange,  instinctive  adaptability  of  mankind,  we  find 
Athens  building  her  less  dignified  or  smaller  temples  in 
a  style  expressive  of  the  Ionian  temperament,  and  we 
find  in  this  style  a  strong  infusion  of  Oriental  motives, 
refined,  of  course,  to  the  Greek  standard.  This  or- 
der is  to-day  called  the  Ionic.  It  hardly  needs  writ- 
ten history  to  decide  that  this  type  was  originally  the 
work  of  Ionian  builders  from  the  colonies  in  Asia 
Minor. 

The  Ionic  building  was  structurally  identical  with  the 
Doric,  but  was  generally  richer  in  applied  decoration. 
Moldings  were  used  more  freely,  and  Oriental  motifs 
are  found  in  profusion.  The  column— corroborating  the 
statement  of  its  value  in  classification— is  distinctive.  The 
height  of  the  shaft  is  from  nine  to  ten  times  the  diameter, 
and  rests  upon  a  base  consisting  of  a  supporting  series 
of  moldings  which  taken  together  are  in  height  half 
the  diameter  of  the  column  —  a  considerable  develop- 
ment from  the  wooden  block  of  the  primitive  building 
(Fig.  ii). 

It  is  in  the  head  of  the  column,  or  capital,  again  that 
the  chief  distinguishing  feature  of  the  style  is  found.  The 
whole  history  of  classic  architecture  reflects  itself  in  the 
kind  and  degree  of  ornamentation  on  the  head  of  the 
column.  The  Ionic  capital  has  the  abacus,  or  block, 

42 


GREEK    FACTORS 


;v 


but  it  is  generally  ornamented 
with  carved  forms  repeated  in  the 
manner  of  a  border.  There  is 
no  echinus,  but,  instead,  what  is 
called  a  voluted  member.  The  vo- 
lute is  a  downward  curled  scroll  at 
either  side  of  the  capital,  and  the 
two  volutes  on  each  column  are 
joined  across  the  front  and  rear  of 
the  capital  in  such  manner  as  to 
suggest,  though  rather  remotely,  a 
cushion  (Fig.  12).  The  change  from 
the  round  column  to  the  square 
abacus  allowed  this  volute  to  show 
only  on  two  sides,  front  and  rear. 
The  curve  connecting  these  faces 
carries  out  the  cushion  idea.  It  is 
as  if  the  luxury- loving  Easterners 
(for  the  motif  is  Assyrian)  had  re- 
volted against  the  austerity  of  the 
block,  and  in  an  odd  bit  of  archi- 
tectural symbolism  had  given  to  the 
repose  of  their  buildings  a  suggestion 
of  the  physical  comfort  they  enjoyed 
so  much  themselves.  (See  Fig.  5.) 

The    origin    of   the    third 
of    the    Greek    orders,    the 
Corinthian    (Figs.    13,    14), 
is  rather  more  obscure  than        |  .  •  -  - . 
the    other     two,    although       * 
the    name     selected     for    it       FIC:.  u— IONIC  COLUMN,  TKM- 
by  some  later  scientist  sug-       PLK  OF  "WINGLESS  VICTORY" 

43 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 


gests  its  origin  in  Corinth,  another  Greek  cm  of  lux- 
urious living  and  florid  idealism.  It  is,  however, 

O 

unquestionably  Eastern  in  origin,  its  crude  ancestor 
being  frequent  in  Kgypt.  In  Greece  it  came  as  a  de- 
velopment in  response  to  the  demand  for  more  ornate 
decoration.  The  Ionic  column  had  one  serious  fault,  in 


FIG.    12 — DETAIL    OF    IONIC     CAPITAL    SHOWING    VOLUTE 


that,  when  looked  at  from  the  side,  it  lacked  any  decora- 
tive suggestion.  There  was  need  for  a  round  capital, 
rich  in  ornamentation,  that  would  appear  equally  well 
from  all  points.  The  Corinthian  filled  that  need.  The 
capital  is  elongated  to  the  diameter  of  the  shaft  at  its 
base.  From  the  "necking" — or  raised  band  at  the  top 
of  the  shaft — two  rows  of  conventionalized  acanthus 
leaves  rise  (acanthus  has  the  characteristics  of  a  lettuce 
leaf  or  of  a  skunk  cabbage),  one  behind  the  other,  and 
from  behind  these  come  four  small  rolut<:s,  again  showing 

44 


GREEK    FACTORS 


the  Assyrian  influence,  while  between 
these  is  another  conventionalized 
plant  form.  The  volutes  come  at 
the  corners  of  the  abacus,  which 
thence  curves  inward  instead  of  re- 
taining its  straight  lines,  as  in  the 
other  sules.  The  Corinthian  is 
used  chiefly  for  porticos  and  small 
buildings,  where  its  delicacy  of  orna- 
mentation is  brought  near  enough  to 
the  eyes  to  be  seen  in  detail  (Fig.  15). 

One  other  characteristic  of  the 
Greek  column  must  be  mentioned 
again.  This  is  the  perpendicular 
fluting  of  the  shafts,  done  to  ac- 
centuate the  effect  of  height.  In 
the  Greek  Doric  order  the  flutes 
meet,  whereas  in  the  other  two 
styles  they  are  separated  by  a  flat, 
narrow  band,  or  fillet.  The  entasis, 
or  gradual  narrowing  of  the  shaft 
toward  the  neck  to  overcome  the 
optical  illusion  of  greater  width  at 
the  top,  approximately,  is  the  same 
in  all  columns. 

This,  then,  is  the  basis  of  clas- 
sic Greek  architecture,  an  art  that 
spread,  owing  to  the  activity  of 
maritime  Athens  and  her  colonies, 
throughout  the  entire  world.  From 
this  one  small,  ancient  city,  and  FIG.  13 — CORINTHIAN 
from  the  product  of  practically  CAPITAL,  PANTHEON, 

45 


ROME 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 


FU;.   14 — CORINTHIAN    CAPITAL    FROM  THK  TKMPLK    OF   LYSICRATES 

hut  a  single  generation,  came  that  which  has  suhtly  dom- 
inated all  architecture  to  this  day.  So  vital  was  this 
inspired  product  that  when  in  later  days  degenerate 
Greece  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans,  then  in  the 
ascendant,  the  conquerors  capitulated  wholly  to  Greek 
science  and  art. 

From  Greek  architecture,  you  remember,  all  the  styles 
that  we  recognize  and   use  have  developed.     While  the 

46 


GREEK    FACTORS 

pure  Greek  is  like  something  apart,  so  coldly  intellectual 
in  its  ultra-refinement  that  it  does  not  perhaps  move  as 
much  as  some  more  humanly  faulty  styles,  its  influence 
is  ubiquitous.  I  have  just  mentioned  the  strength  of  this 


,  , 


FIG.   15 — -MODIFIED     CORINTHIAN 

influence  in  early  America.  Much  so-called  "Colonial" 
architecture  is  almost  entirely  Grecian,  having  been  in- 
troduced into  this  country  by  way  of  England  after  1800. 

47 


FIG.     1 6— PORCH     OF     HOUSE     AT     SALEM,     MASS.,     SHOWING     IONIC 

COLUMN 


GREEK    FACTORS 

Many  of  our  most  beautiful  manor  houses  are  in  this 
style. 

The  active  building  period  a  decade  or  two  before  the 
Civil  War  gave  us  several  examples  of  sturdy  granite 
buildings  in  the  Greek — notably  the  old  Astor  House  in 
New  York  (to  the  excellent  Doric  porch  of  which  I  recom- 
mend your  study).  The  use  of  close-grained,  sombre 
granite  in  these  buildings  is  intimately  suggestive  of  the 
type  of  men  who  followed  so  studiously  the  laws  of  the 
ancient  builders. 

While  this  style  did  not  continue  in  use  in  the  large 
cities,  there  are  very  interesting  survivals  of  its  traditions 
to  be  found  scattered  throughout  the  country  in  the 
smaller  towns,  and  cities  east  of  the  Alleghanies  (Fig.  16). 

I  have  seen  in  farm-houses  far  off  the  main  highways 
some  most  beautiful  Greek  doorways  with  columns  and 
pilasters  in  nicest  proportion,  which  could  have  been 
built  to  fill  no  requirements  save  that  of  the  builder's 
pride  and  joy  in  good  work. 

Many  of  my  readers  will  remember  the  New  England 
type  of  last-century  builders — broad-shouldered,  stocky, 
and  with  closely  cropped  gray  beard,  usually  deacons  in 
a  church  of  harsh  ideals.  The  rugged  temperament  and 
Puritan  training  found  appropriate  expression  in  these 
uncompromising  laws  of  the  Greek  builders.  I  have 
discussed  building  details  and  design  with  the  descend- 
ants of  these  men,  and  have  found  that  if  let  alone  in 
building  a  small  town  house,  or  even  a  barn,  they  will 
unconsciously  give  Greek  proportions  to  the  corner- 
boards  and  the  door  and  window  trim.  It  is  only  neces- 
sary to  keep  your  eyes  open  in  any  small  town  of  New 
England  to  see  examples  of  this  kind  of  work  in  the  vil- 

49 


FIG.  17 — UNION    SQUARE    SAVINGS-HANK,   NEW    YORK   fcORINTHIAN) 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

lage  church,  or  in  the  house  of  the  storekeeper,  or  in  the 
outlying  farm-hofuses. 

In  these  modern  days,  and  hy  our  most  modern  archi- 
tects, there  are  numerous  examples  of  the  use  of  Greek 
in  hank  huildings.  The  Union  Square  Savings  Bank, 
New  York  (Fig.  17),  has  the  Greek  delicacy  of  projec- 
tion in  the  moldings,  and  in  the  proportions  of  the 
cornice,  the  pilasters,  and  panels.  Notice  the  similarity 
between  the  panelling  of  this  building  and  that  of  the 
old  Custom  House,  Wall  Street,  New  York,  a  huilding  in 
the  Ionic  type  huilt  in  1842  by  Isaiah  Rogers  (Fig.  18). 
The  old  Colonnade  on  Lafayette  Place  was  perhaps  the 
best  example  of  a  Greek  colonnade  in  this  country  (Fig. 
19).  Part  of  it  has  unfortunately  had  to  make  way  for 
lofts,  but  its  beauty  has  been  well  preserved  in  the  etch- 
ing by  Mielatz. 

The  entrance  to  the  old  Astor  House  in  New  York  is 
one  of  the  best  examples  of  Greek  Doric  in  the  country, 
though  I  have  grave  doubts  that  this  is  appreciated  by 
the  hungry  business  men  of  New  York  who  pass  through 
this  portal  daily  in  their  search  for  a  quick  lunch.  Fig. 
20  is  from  Mielatz's  plates  of  old  New  York. 


FIG.    19 — -COLONNADE   ON   LAFAYETTE   PLACE, 
NEW  YORK  (CORINTHIAN) 


FIG.  2O— ENTRANCE  TO  THK  ASTOR   HOL'SK 
(DORIC) 


Ni:\V     YORK 


CHAPTER   IV 

THE    FIRST    GREAT   TRANSITION 

Classic 

CENTURY  after  the  death  of  Pericles 
and  the  beginning  of  Athen's  artistic  de- 
cline we  see  the  Grecian  Empire  at  its 
zenith  of  territorial  and  political  glory 
under  that  amazing  youth,  Alexander  the 
Great.  His  meteoric  career  is  as  fasci- 
nating and  as  far-reaching  in  its  effects 
as  the  story  of  the  Persian  wars. 

At  the  death  of  Alexander,  in  323  B.C.,  he  had  con- 
quered practically  the  entire  middle  country  of  the 
continent  of  Asia,  penetrating  to  the  borders  of  India 
on  the  east,  and  from  the  Caspian  and  Black  seas  south 
to  tl>e  Persian  Sea.  (Fig.  21.) 

While  this  empire  proved  more  than  the  ruling  forces 
of  Greece  could  control,  it  had  a  most  marvellous  edu- 
cational result,  in  that  it  offered  the  mysterious  culture 
and  taste  of  this  vast,  intellectual,  and  artistic  Garden  of 
Eden  to  the  Greeks,  who  were  so  soon  to  retire  as  a 
world  power.  And  a  most  wonderful  use  they  made  of 
this  knowledge. 

You  will  notice  that  in  conquering  old  countries  the 
conqueror  is  frequently  made  captive  by  the  arts  and 

55 


HOW  TO  KNOW  ARCHITECTURE 


FIG.  21 TOMB  OF  ALEXANDER  THE  GREAT 

sciences  of  the  conquered  nation.  So  the  Greek  intel- 
lect, coming  under  the  influence  of  the  sensuous  love  of 
color  in  the  architecture  of  the  East,  capitulated,  and  in 
turn  they  themselves  came  to  dominate  Roman  culture. 

We  see  Greece  weakened  under  the  persistent  onslaughts 
of  the  Northern  invaders  and  her  revolting  Macedonians; 
and  Rome,  lusty  with  growing  power  and  her  success 
in  the  Punic  wars,  first  helping  and  then  absorhing, 
until  Greece,  in  Europe  and  in  Asia,  loses  her  political 
independence  and  becomes  subject  to  this  new  power. 

Rome's  first  taste  of  Greek  culture  came  from  the 
colonies,  a  fact  that  is  distinctly  perceptible  to  the  student 
of  her  early  architecture.  The  Romans  seem  to  have 
liked,  or  to  have  needed,  some  such  inspiration,  for  after 

56 


THE    FIRST    GREAT    TRANSITION 

they  absorbed  Greece  we  see  as  the  next  step  the  ex- 
traordinary spectacle  of  one  great  nation  borrowing  and 
adopting  almost  entire  the  arts  and  sciences  of  another. 
Rome  became  a  nation  of  great  culture,  she  built  mag- 
nificently, and  afterward  declined,  for  exactly  the  same 
reasons  as  Greece,  but  in  the  arts  she  did  little  more 
than  to  deaden  the  keen  aristocratic  edge  of  Greek  in- 
vention with  her  cheap  slave  labor,  which  was  employed 
in  the  construction  of  the  rough  brick  and  rubble  walls, 
faced  with  ashlar  or  surface  stone  or  marble  by  a  better 
class  of  artisans.  They  developed  the  various  styles, 
using  them  in  the  form  of  arcades  plastered  on  the  face 
of  the  surface  of  the  walls,  one  arcade  above  another,  so 
that  the  orders  which  had  been  invented  for  structural 
reasons  became  only  a  form  of  applied  ornamentation, 
exactly  as  it  was  to  be  used  later  during  the  Renaissance. 
However,  Rome  played  a  most  important  part  in  the 
development  of  architecture,  in  that  she  paved  the  way 
for  the  evolving  of  that  other  great  style,  the  Gothic. 
It  is  pertinent  to  say  here  that  the  Greek  classic  and  the 
Gothic  are  the  two  transcendent  architectural  creations 
of  the  race.  All  other  styles  or  forms  are  but  the  evolu- 
tionary adaptations  or  revivals  of  these  two,  as  even  their 
names  indicate.  These  two  styles  loom  high  above  the 
others,  because  they  were  inspired  in  periods  of  the 
loftiest  and  intensest  idealism.  The  pagan  Greek,  with  his 
overmastering  pride  of  birth,  his  whole-hearted  devotion 
to  the  ideal  of  physical  perfection,  his  passion  for  poetic, 
musical,  and  intellectual  expression,  and  the  pride  of 
race,  created  supremely  well  after  his  kind.  The  Chris- 
tian Frank,  with  the  same  pride  of  race,  in  ecstatic  rapt- 
ure over  his  glorious  new-found  faith,  builded  according 

57 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

to  his  ideal,  and  his  art  will  not  he  bettered  until  men's 
hearts  are  again  supremely  exalted  by  an  ideal  as  his 
was. 

Rome  shows  no  such  exaltation,  and  the  architectural 
style  called  Roman  is  a  hyhnd  development  of  borrowed 
Greek.  To-day  it  is  ordinarily  included  with  the  original 
Greek  in  the  general  term  of  the  Classic.  The  Romans 
did,  however,  increase  the  comforts  of  the  domestic  side 
of  life  by  planning  and  building  dwellings  far  in  advance 
of  anything  known  by  the  Greeks. 

Lacking  any  compelling  religious  idealism,  but  strong 
in  civic  and  personal  pride,  Rome  did  not  build  temples 
but  great  triumphal  arches  (notice  that  the  Romans  were 
not  afraid  of  the  arch  which  never  slept),  courts  of  lav, 
circuses,  and  theatres  —all,  however,  after  Greek  models, 
with  local  modifications.  Her  emperors  were  often  men 
of  extraordinary  egotism,  amounting  to  mania,  which 
led  them  to  deify  themselves  and  demand  the  worship  of 
their  subjects.  Being  most  generously  endowed  with 
human  failings,  it  is  quite  easy  to  understand  that  they 
did  not  often  inspire  any  great  fervor  of  religious  or 
political  devotion  (Fig.  22). 

The  utterly  reckless  lavishness  of  these  emperors,  and 
the  florid  life  of  court  and  nobility,  are  reflected  in  the 
richness  of  architectural  embellishment.  Thus  the  Corin- 
thian order,  because  of  its  great  amount  of  ornament, 
had  general  preference  over  the  other  Grecian  styles, 
while  two  new  orders  were  developed,  neither  of  which, 
however,  shows  any  such  originality  as  the  parent  forms. 

One  of  these  new  forms  is  called  the  Tuscan,  as  it 
is  supposed  to  be  a  legacy  from  the  Etruscan  prede- 
cessors of  the  Romans.  It  is,  however,  little  more  than 

58 


THE    FIRST    GREAT    TRANSITION 

a  coarsened  reproduction  of  the  Doric.  The  Tuscan 
column  has  a  base  consisting  of  plinth  (the  square  block 
which  balances  the  abacus  at  the  top),  half-round  mold- 
ing, and  fillet.  Otherwise  only  an  architect  would  think 
it  other  than  Greek  Doric  without  that  order's  subtle 
refinement. 

The  second  is  known  as  the  Composite,  an  appropriate 
name,  since  it  is  a  somewhat  elaborated  mixture  of  the 


FIC.  22 — TRIUMPHAL    ARCH    OF    TITUS 

Ionic  and  Corinthian.  In  brief,  it  consists  of  the  en- 
largement of  the  four  Corinthian  volutes  to  about  the 
proportions  they  reach  in  the  Ionic. 

The  three  Greek  orders  were  all,  of  course,  trans- 
planted to  Roman  soil,  but  in  each  case  they  were  so 
transformed  and  changed  as  to  be  quite  distinguishable 

59 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

from  the  originals,  and  they  arc,  in  fact,  generally  called 
Roman  Doric,  Roman  Ionic,  and  Roman  Corinthian. 

The  Roman  Empire  had  spread  from  Britain  on  the 
north  to  Africa,  Persia,  and  Assyria  on  the  south  and 
east,  and  its  very  strength,  as  in  the  case  of  Greece,  had 
hecome  its  weakness.  Its  decadence  had  begun  when 
that  greatest  of  all  epoch-making  events,  the  birth  of 
Christ,  occurred  in  Jerusalem. 

During  the  first  three  centuries  of  the  Christian  era 
we  find  pagan  Rome  steadily  declining,  and  the  Christian 
faith  steadily,  unfalteringly  spreading  in  spite  of  rabid 
persecution  among  the  Romans,  and  bringing  a  new  Nope 
and  a  new  spirit  to  the  people. 

The  political  significance  of  the  teachings  of  Christ  in 
those  early  days  has  sometimes  been  lost  sight  of.  We 
had  previously  seen  nations  grow  from  the  consolidation 
of  tribes  associated  in  war  and  self-defence,  but  that  there 
might  be  a  common  basis  of  friendly  interest  among 
nations  was  almost  undreamed  of  until  the  Nazarene 
promulgated  his  astonishing  doctrine  of  the  universal 
brotherhood  of  man  and  the  universal  fatherhood  of  a  single 
Deity.  The  idea  was  almost  overwhelmingly  revolutionary, 
and  it  seems  to  have  gathered  the  multiple  currents  and 
counter-currents  of  petty  national  ambition  into  a  great 
and  inspiring  progressive  movement  in  a  manner  almost 
magical.  It  did  not  change  the  northwestern  course  of 
trade  and  empire  and  culture,  but,  on  the  contrary,  it 
became  part  of  the  movement,  and  brought  to  it  a  stimulus 
far  beyond  anything  the  world  had  known  before,  and  a 
climax  in  architecture,  the  Gothic  Cathedral,  which  the 
Greek  Temple  could  not  equal. 

Rut  I  am  anticipating.  We  still  find  the  Christians 

60 


THE    FIRST   GREAT    TRANSITION 

under  the  ban  of  the  Roman  authorities,  meeting  in 
secret,  a  hidden  leaven  in  the  lump  of  Roman  degeneracy, 
but  waiting  for  the  event  that  should  make  them  an 
active  power  in  the  world,  when  Constantine  was  made 
Emperor  in  323.  To  him  must  be  given  the  credit  of 
beginning  a  new  epoch  of  world  history. 

Already,  before  Constantine  became  ruler  of  Rome,  the 
Christian  Church,  despite  the  determined  efforts  of  the 
state  to  suppress  it,  had  grown  into  a  wide-spread  move- 
ment, with  bishops  in  Antioch,  Ephesus,  Alexandria, 
Byzantium,  and  Rome,  but  without  a  dominating  leader. 
While  we  observe  this  situation,  however,  we  find  the 
greater  bishops  absorbing  the  power,  in  an  evolutionary 
tendency  toward  centralization,  so  that  when  Constantine 
finished  his  reign,  there  are  but  two,  one  in  Rome  and 
one  in  Byzantium  or  Constantinople,  the  first  with  power 
over  all  the  Western  Church,  and  the  second  the  spiritual 
master  of  the  East. 

Now  the  Roman  Empire  was  politically  divided  into 
East  and  West,  and  Constantine  was  master  of  the  barbaric 
West;  while  Licinius,  his  brother-in-law,  after  his  defeat 
of  Maximinus,  reigned  over  the  East  from  rich  Byzan- 
tium. 

This  did  not  please  the  militant  and  astute  Constantine, 
who  early  determined  to  bring  the  entire  empire  under 
his  own  control.  And  this  rapid  increase  of  Christian 
sentiment  was  an  obstacle  to  his  ambition.  It  honey- 
combed the  Army  and  the  Court,  and  even  entered  the 
Emperor's  household,  for  both  Constantine's  mother, 
Helena,  and  his  wife,  Fausta,  accepted  the  new  faith, 
and  seem  to  have  made  efforts  to  secure  his  interest  in 
it  and  friendship  for  it.  Constantine,  shrewd  politician 

61 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

that  he  was,  felt  the  lack  of  cohesion  among  his  people 
because  of  the  growth  of  Christianity  under  persecution, 
and  realized  that  his  plans  for  Eastern  conquest  must 
fail  if  hs  could  not  secure  the  popular  support  of  both 
elements. 

He  decided  upon  a  bold  and  clever  stroke.  Announ- 
cing to  his  army  that  he  had  a  vision  in  which  a  cross — the 
Christian  symbol — had  appeared  in  the  heavens,  he  made 
Christianity  the  official  religion  of  the  empire,  and  or- 
dered that  the  symbol  be  added  to  the  Roman  coat  of 
arms.  His  coup  was  a  brilliant  success.  The  Christians 
came  out  from  their  hiding-places  in  large  numbers.  It 
must  have  amazed  even  Constantine  himself  to  see  the 
strength  of  the  new  faith.  He  gave  them  the  lav;  courts, 
or  basilicas,  as  places  of  worship,  and  then  proceeded 
to  occupy  the  ancient  Greek  country,  with  Byzantium 
as  the  capital,  which  yielded  to  him  in  A.D.  324. 

Either  the  charms  of  the  Eastern  metropolis  itself  or 
its  strategic  position  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dardanelles, 
where  it  controlled  trade  and  made  an  ideal  base  for 
the  invasion  of  Asia,  strongly  attracted  Constantine.  He 
decided  to  make  it  his  headquarters.  He  renamed  it 
New  Rome  (but  re-established  a  new  Greece),  and  began 
large  building  operations,  sending  back  to  Rome  for  all 
the  movable  treasures  of  the  empire  to  adorn  his  new 
palaces  in  the  city,  which  the  people  forthwith  called 
Constantinople. 

The  half-Christian,  half-Eastern  civilization  that  de- 
veloped from  this  event  is  one  of  the  most  richly  colored 
in  history.  Picture  this  great  trade  centre  as  she  sits 
there,  in  the  very  middle  of  the  ancient  world,  one  hand 
reaching  into  the  pockets  of  the  Far  East,  her  back  firmly 

62 


THE    FIRST    GREAT    TRANSITION 

set  against  the  wandering,  ravaging  tribes  of  Huns,  and 
her  other  hand  reaching  out  over  the  West.  Norman 
freebooters  served  in  her  armies,  Eastern  merchants  as- 
sisted in  her  protection  and  shared  with  the  Northern 
traders  the  luscious  loot  of  Oriental  trade  and  conquest, 
while  all  the  time  the  lion's  share  was  falling  into  the  lap 
of  the  queenly  city  herself. 

And  with  all  this  came  the  culture  of  the  keen  and 
subtle  Eastern  civilization  to  color  with  its  mysticism  and 
its  richness  of  Oriental  imagery  the  basic  beauties  of  the 
Greek  styles.  For  you  must  remember  that  for  a  thou- 
sand years,  until  another  Constantine  surrendered  the 
city  to  the  Turks,  Constantinople  remained  Greek,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  ancient  Ionian  cities. 

O 

The  application  of  mosaics  to  wall  space,  the  elabora- 
tion of  the  capitals,  the  enrichment  of  ornamental  forms 
in  floorings  and  fabrics,  the  lavish  use  of  colored  marbles, 
gold,  and  precious  stones  in  the  embellishment  of  the 
temples — all  these  added  to  the  arts  of  the  Greeks  in 
Constantinople,  to  become  in  later  times  a  treasure-store 
of  fresh  inspiration  for  all  Europe  and  the  world.  It 
was  this  period  that  gave  us  the  style  called  By/antine, 
which  may  be  considered  as  the  decadence  of  the  pure 
Greek. 

The  ideal  which  inspired  the  development  of  this  in- 
teresting product  was  Christianity.  Under  the  protection  of 
Constantine  and  his  successors  the  new  religion  flourished 
exceedingly.  It  is  interesting  that  as  the  architecture  was 
warmed  and  colored  by  the  Eastern  influence,  so  Chris- 
tianity itself  was  colored  by  Eastern  philosophy  and 
superstition.  Thus  we  find  the  Eastern  Christians  adopt- 
ing the  Mohammedan  prohibition  against  the  making  of 

63 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 


FIG.  23 — ST.    SOPHIA,    CONSTANTINOPLE 


images,  a  rule  which  was  later  to  result  in  the  separation 
of  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches. 

Just  as  we  might  expect,  when  the  Greeks  of  Byzantium 
came  to  build  their  churches  thev  turned  to  their  Eastern 

J 

neighbor,  Assyria,  for  models.  Throughout  western  Asia 
considerable  progress  had  been  made  in  the  building  of 
temples.  We  find  the  "  barrel  -  vaulted "  roof  well  de- 
veloped, for  instance,  and,  evolving  out  of  this,  the  dome. 
Dome  construction  to-day,  with  our  laws  of  strain  and 
thrust  all  reduced  to  mathematical  formula*,  is  largely  a 
matter  of  pure  engineering,  albeit  an  interesting  one.  To 
those  earh"  experimenters,  without  traditions,  rules,  or 
modern  mathematics,  and  with  only  bricks,  tiles,  or 
stones  for  materials,  it  must  have  been  a  supreme  test  of 

64 


THE    FIRST    GREAT    TRANSITION 

skill  and  daring.  For  that  reason  the  first  appearance  of 
the  dome,  some  time  in  this  period,  marks  a  most  im- 
portant step  in  constructional  progress.  Domes  are  found 
both  in  Rome  and  in  Constantinople  almost  simultane- 
ously, but  in  Italy  they  were  sparingly  used  at  this  early 
date,  while  in  the  East  they  became  one  of  the  character- 
istic features  of  the  architecture. 

The  best  known  of  all  the  Byzantine  churches  in  Con- 
stantinople (Fig.  23),  and  a  superb  example  of  early  dome 
construction,  is  St.  Sophia,  built  in  the  sixth  century, 
about  two  hundred  years  after  Constantine  captured  the 
city.  St.  Mark's,  in  Venice,  is  a  later  interpretation  of 
St.  Sophia  (Fig.  24).  By  this  time  the  Eastern  builders 
had  evolved  the  style  recognized  as  Byzantine  to-day, 


FIG.   24 — ST.    MARK  S,    VENICE 

65 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

and  St.  Sophia  is  so  beautiful  and  characteristic  an  ex- 
ample of  it  that  I  wish  vou  to  visit  it  in  imagination 
with  me  and  listen  with  what  patience  you  can  to  a 
necessarily  somewhat  technical  description  of  it.  1  he 
value  of  this  is  that  it  will  fix  in  our  minds  those  dominant 
characteristics  of  the  Byzantine  that  we  shall  meet  with 
in  our  later  peregrinations. 

As  we  approach  the  church,  its  glittering  golden  domes 
and  half-domes  impress  us  from  a  distance.  A  nearer 
view  shows  that  the  church  is  almost  square,  and  about 
two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  long.  Having  newly  come 
from  the  homes  of  classic  architecture,  we  are  surprised 
to  find  that  the  rows  of  columns  have  disappeared,  though 
we  are  reassured  when  we  find  them  inside,  but  consider- 
ably changed. 

Within  is  a  smaller  square,  the  corners  of  which  are 
massive  piers  supporting  the  saucer-shaped  dome.  The 
high  triangular  vaultings  which  drop  from  the  base  of 
the  dome  to  the  piers  are  called  pendentives,  and  are  in- 
teresting outgrowths  of  this  new  building  method.  Now 
look  upward  into  the  great  multicolored  ceiling  for  a 
study  of  the  dome  system.  At  the  front  and  back  of  the 
central  dome,  but  at  a  lower  level,  are  the  two  great  half- 
domes.  On  the  sides  are  short  barrel-vaults,  extending 
to  the  side  walls.  The  half-domes  are  each  penetrated 
by  three  smaller  half-domes,  the  central  one  at  the  front 
covering  the  entrance,  and  that  at  the  rear  the  apse,  or 
recess  for  the  altar.  The  floor-plan  is  thus  in  the  shape 
of  a  Greek  or  equal-armed  cross,  the  side  arms,  which 
are  under  the  barrel-vaults,  taking:  the  place  of  what  in 

O  I 

the  Roman  church  later  became  the  transept.  These  are 
separated  from  the  nave  by  rows  of  columns  which  sup- 

"66 


FIG.  25 — ROMAN    ARCH    WITH    PEDIMENT 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

port  a  gallery  for  the  women  worshippers — another  feature 
of  the  Greek  church  which  shows  the  Eastern  influence. 

The  walls  we  see  gorgeously  decorated  with  slahs  of 
colored  marble,  and  the  insides  of  the  domes  are  covered 
solidly  with  gold  inlaid  with  richly  wrought  mosaics.  The 
floors  also  are  elaborately  inlaid,  and  the  columns  and 
caps  are  of  fine  marbles.  The  church  is  lighted  from 
above  through  small,  round-arched  apertures  below  the 
dome. 

About  this  same  time  the  ground-plan  of  the  Greek 
cross  is  elsewhere  developed  much  more  plainly  than  in 
St.  Sophia,  each  of  the  four  arms  of  the  cross  being 
covered  either  with  a  separate  small  dome  or  with  barrel- 
vaulting.  There  is  usually  on  the  front  of  Byzantine 
churches  a  one-story  covered  porch,  similar  to  that  used 
by  the  Romans  in  their  domestic  architecture  (Fig.  25). 

Another  type  of  dome  which  was  developed  in  this 
period  was  somewhat  flattened,  or  saucer-shaped,  on  the 
outside  and  hemispherical  on  the  inside,  and  was  raised 
by  vertical  walls  above  the  intersection  of  the  nave  and 
transept,  making  the  earliest  model  of  what  is  known  as 
the  drum  (Fig.  26). 

The  entablature,  which  is  the  combination  of  architrave 
frieze  and  cornice  of  the  Greeks,  disappears  in  the  Byzan- 
tine with  the  Greek  capital.  A  new  form  better  adapted 
to  the  support  of  an  arch  is  introduced,  the  arch  having 
taken  the  place  of  the  entablature  as  a  supporting  member. 
The  abacus,  in  this  style,  of  necessity  increases  in  size  to 
adapt  itself  to  the  support  of  the  arch,  and  it  is  richly 
decorated  in  combination  with  the  capital,  which  develops 
considerably  in  ornament.  Corinthian,  Composite,  and 
Ionic  are  intermingled  and  altered  with  great  freedom. 

68 


THE    FIRST    GREAT    TRANSITION 


FIG.   26 — GREEK-CROSS     PLAN    AT    TORCELLO,    ITALY,   WITH    DRUM 

AND    DOME 

Several  designs  are  frequently  used  in  a  single  structure. 
The  acanthus  leaf,  which  we  found  in  the  Corinthian,  be- 
comes more  spiky  with  deep  indentations  below  the  points, 
a  characteristic  to  be  remembered  in  our  later  search  for 
Byzantine  forms. 

It  our  theory  of  the  Northwestward  trend  of  the  main 
0  69 


MOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

current  of  civilization  is  a  sound  one,  this  backward  move- 
ment from  Rome  to  Byzantium  would  not  prove  of  endur- 
ing greatness,  and  such  is  indeed  the  case.  While  the  Byz- 
antine architecture,  returning  Westward  along  the  main 
line  of  progress  through  Italy,  gave  valuable  color  to  later 
creation  until  it  practically  disappeared  in  the  effulgence 
of  the  Gothic,  it  was  obviously  not  an  influence  of  funda- 
mental importance  to  us  (Figs.  27,  28,  29^,  2()b).  Its  his- 
tory in  the  East  also  confirms  our  hypothesis. 

Byzantine  is  practically  the  only  offshoot  from  the  Greek 
classic  architecture  travelling  toward  the  East  and  under 
its  domination,  with  the  Russian  and  Saracenic,  or  Moor- 
ish, as  offshoots;  Russia,  because  of  religion,  and  trade 
affiliations,  being  under  the  religious  control  of  the  Greek 


FIG.  27 — THE    DUOMO    AT    SIENA,    ITALY.       (I'OIMTLL)    BYZANTINE) 

70 


FIG.    28 — DOORWAY   OF    CHURCH   AT    ST.   MARK/S,    VENICE 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 


FIG.2Qfl-BYZANTINECAP- 

1TAL,  ST.  MARK  S,  VENICE 


Church,  and  the  Moorish,  be- 
cause of  geographical  proximity 
and  trade  and  race  affiliations 
with  both  the  East  and  South- 
east, and  this  central  seaport. 

When  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  seventh  century  the  fanatic 
Mohammedans  conquered  Per- 
sia, Egypt,  Africa,  and  Spain, 
this  interpretation  was  carried 
by  them  to  a  high  degree  of 
architectural  skill.  The  peculiar  characteristics  of  the 
style  are  the  interlaced  geometric  patterns,  originally 
of  Byzantine  influence, 
the  slender  columns, 
which,  coming  both  from 
the  Greek  and  the  East, 
are  indications  of  the 
character  of  the  people, 
light,  graceful,  delicate, 
with  the  later  Byzantine 
cap  overlaid  with  Moor- 
ish arabesque,  or  in  imi- 
tation of  the  Corinthian, 
and  the  peculiar  horse- 
shoe shape  given  to  the 
arches  and  in  the  section 
of  the  domes. 

The  love  of  rich  col- 
orings in  the  mosaics  of 
the  later  Greeks  is  the 
result  of  Eastern  influ- 


FIG    2Q/;  —  BYZANTINE   CAPITAL, 
RAVENNA 


72 


THE    FIRST    GREAT    TRANSITION 

ence.  These  Moors  or  Arabs  have  the  same  fondness 
for  highly  colored  geometrical  patterns  carried  to  such  a 
degree  that  the  word  "arabesque"  has  been  coined  to  de- 
scribe them  (Figs.  30,  31). 

Developed   at  the  same  time,  and  along  lines  parallel 
to  this    marked   offshoot,  was   the   Russian    architecture 


FIG.    JO — COMPOSITE    CAPITAL    FROM 
SKVILLK   (MOORISH) 

and  ornament.  While  the  interlaced  and  symbolic  folia- 
tion of  the  Byzantine  was  colored  by  the  Saracens  in  their 
own  peculiar  manner,  we  rind  in  the  North  the  same 
method  of  ornament,  under  the  influence  of  the  Mongolian 
and  the  Tatar,  rich  and  gaudy  and  wonderfully  expres- 
sive of  this  branch  of  the  human  race. 

73 


FIG.  JI — MOORISH    ARCH   AND 
ALHAMBRA 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

1  his  type  of  ornament  entered  the  North  Country  by 
way  of  the  Danube,  and  the  Norse  and  Scandinavian 
interlaced  and  symbolic  arabesques  were  used  long  be- 
fore the  march  of  progress  brought  a  finished  style  into 
Europe  by  way  of  the  Northwest  from  Rome. 

This  ornament  was  carried  into  England  during  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth  by  the  Eastern  traders  who  entered 
England  by  way  of  the  Dnieper  and  Moscow  from  the 
central  Asian  countries.  France,  at  that  time  being  an 
unfriendly  country,  cut  of?  the  overland  routes  because 
of  England's  affiliation  with  the  Teutonic  religious 
rebels. 

The  onion-shaped  termination  of  the  towers  of  the  re- 
ligious architecture  of  the  Russian  is  a  Mongolian  trans- 
lation of  the  domes  of  the  Asiatic  people,  of  which  a 
good  example  is  shown  in  Agra  (Fig.  32).  This  influence 
stopped  and  had  no  further  effect  on  the  growth  of  the 
European  styles,  as  it  remained  with  the  Greek  Church 
in  Russia,  and  with  the  Moors,  an  alien  people,  their 
interpretation  had  no  bearing  on  the  general  growth. 

Before  I  leave  these  two  offshoots  of  styles  I  want  again 
to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  this  structural  and  decora- 
tive language  is  an  expression  of  the  people,  common  and 
natural,  and  easily  read.  When  the  special  type  of  hu- 
manity changes  because  of  climatic  or  trade  conditions, 
the  special  expression  will  either  disappear  or  modify  it- 
self in  accordance  with  the  new  conditions. 

The  Roman  in  Modern  Architecture 
In  modern  times  Roman  influence  has  affected  the  styles 
of  the  American    colonies  to  a   greater  degree  than   has 
the  Greek.     In  fact,  most  of  the  work  of  the  real  colonial 

76 


FIG.  33 KNICKERBOCKER  TRUST  COMPANY,  NEW  YORK   fROMAN 

CORINTHIAN) 


u 

-t- 


THE    FIRST   GREAT   TRANSITION 

architecture  is  distinctly  Roman.  If  you  remember,  die 
Roman  translations  have  a  less  classic  refinement  but 
more  human  feeling,  and  were  thus  more  easily  under- 
stood by  the  average  man.  For  that  reason  our  numer- 


FIG.  35 — MADISON    SQUARE    PRESBYTERIAN    CHURCH,  NEW  YORK. 

ous  variations  in  column,  cornice,  and  other  detail  have 
been  largely  based  on  the  Roman  translation. 

The  best  example  of  Roman  architecture  with  us  is  the 
building  of  the  Knickerbocker  Trust  Company,  on  Fifth 
Avenue  at  Thirty-fourth  Street,  New  York  (Fig.  33).  In 
this  case  McKim,  Mead  &  White  have  reproduced  a  true 

79 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

example  of  Roman  construction  with  piers  and  cornice, 
or  perpendicular  and  horizontal  support,  giving  oppor- 
tunity for  light  between  the  columns,  an  opportunity  that 
has  been  accentuated  by  the  colored  treatment  of  these 
intermediate  spaces.  The  Church  of  the  Madeleine,  in 
Paris,  built  by  Napoleon,  is  a  beautiful  example  of  a 
Roman  temple  (Fig.  34).  Both  of  these  buildings  are 
Corinthian,  which  was,  you  remember,  the  most  lavishly 
decorated  of  the  classic  orders.  The  new  Pennsylvania 
railroad  station  in  New  York  is  Roman,  and  is  perhaps 
a  supreme  example  of  Roman  Doric,  with  the  peculiar 
warmth  of  the  Roman,  so  distinct  from  the  comparative 
coldness  of  the  Greek.  (See  Fig.  78.) 

Byzantine  Architecture  in  America 
Of  this  style  there  are  few  examples  which  might  be 
called  pure  in  their  essence  and  form.  While  Doctor 
Parkhurst's  church  in  Madison  Square  is  rather  more 
Roman  than  Byzantine  (Fig.  35),  it  is  an  interesting  com- 
posite of  the  two.  The  rich  decorations  in  the  treatment 
of  brick  and  the  color  decorations  of  the  interior  are  very 
strongly  Byzantine.  There  is  a  most  interesting  example 
in  the  Unitarian  Church  on  Fourth  Avenue  at  Twentieth 
Street,  New  York  (Fig.  36),  of  an  Englishman's  translation 
of  the  Byzantine,  which  also  includes  a  touch  of  the  Sara- 
cenic and  something  of  the  Victorian  Gothic.  The  stripe 
decoration  in  the  brickwork  of  this  church  is  somewhat 
Saracenic,  and  was  used  during  the  period  preceding  the 
fifteenth-century  Renaissance  in  Italy  in  the  church  at 
Siena,  of  which  an  illustration  is  shown  (see  Fig.  27).  We 
have  called  it  Pointed  Byzantine.  The  lettering  on  this 
New  York  church  is  in  English  Gothic,  and  the  treatment 

80 


i  K;.   37  —  Ti'Mi'i.K   I-:MANU-I:L,  NI-W  YORK 


THE    FIRST    GREAT    TRANSITION 

of  the  capitals  show  a  slight  Norman  influence.  It  is 
thus  evident  that  the  architect  was  trained  in  England, 
probably  lived  there,  and,  as  is  true  of  every  architect, 
knowledge  of  other  forms  and  the  essence  of  other  styles 
forced  themselves  on  him  in  spite  of  every  effort  on  his 
part  to  develop  a  pure  style. 

Saracenic  Architecture  in  America 
This  style,  which  we  also  call  Moorish,  has  in  modern 
times  been  used  almost  exclusively  for  Jewish  synagogues. 
The  illustration  of  the  Temple  Emanu-el  on  Fifth  Ave., 
New  York  (Fig.  37),  will  illustrate  this  form.  One  might  also 
cite  the  interior  of  the  Casino  Theatre  in  New  York  as  the 
sort  of  thing  we  do  in  the  name  of  the  ancient  Saracens. 


'.9  ATI  2T  AOAYNO1A 


CHRISTIAN 

THE  SECOND  PERIOD 


CHAPTER  V 

THE    BIRTH    OF   CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE 

E  left  Rome  in  the  company  of  the 
Emperor  Constantine  to  travel  a 
picturesque  bypath  in  the  East,  and 
now  we  must  return  to  the  ruler- 
less  city  and  resume  our  peregrina- 
tions northwestward  along  the  main 
line  of  progress. 
As  might  have  been  anticipated,  the  city 
did  not  long  remain  without  some  sort  of  dictator,  but  we 
may  well  be  surprised  to  find  the  Roman  bishop  of  the 
newly  recognized  religion  taking  charge  of  temporal  as 
well  as  of  spiritual  affairs,  and  in  course  of  time  securing 
the  absolute  dictatorship  of  the  state.  Here  was  an  as- 
tonishing state  of  things,  and  a  portentous  one.  We 
cannot  but  admire  the  astuteness  of  these  men,  recently 
civil  outlaws  hiding  in  byways  of  the  city  and  gathering 
their  terrified  little  flocks  in  secret  places,  now  suddenly 
developing  into  able  political  organizers  and  firmly  grasp- 
ing the  helm  of  state.  The  result  we  view  with  unabat- 
ing  astonishment.  In  a  few  short  years  they  had  laid 
foundations  that  made  possible  the  papal  dominance  of 
all  Christendom  for  nearly  a  thousand  years. 

The  first  great  need  of  the  now  controlling  Christians 

87 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

was  for  places  of  worship,  and  to  fill  this  need  several  of 
the  basilicas,  or  law  courts,  were  converted  to  the  pur- 
pose, becoming  thereby  the  basis  for  Christian  church 
architecture  of  this  day  (Fig.  38). 

These  basilicas,  or  kingly  courts,  belonged  architect- 
urally to  the  early  Classic,  but  we  find  their  prototypes 
much  further  back,  among  Eastern  people.  From  very 
early  times  Oriental  potentates  dispensed  justice,  or  what 
passed  for  it,  from  a  throne  at  one  end  of  an  unroofed 
enclosure.  So  in  Rome,  as  late  as  the  Christian  era,  we 
find  the  emperors  doing  precisely  this  thing.  The  first 
basilicas  were  unroofed  except  for  an  aisle  down  each 
side,  along  which  ran  rows  of  columns.  The  throne  at 
the  end,  of  course,  was  handsomely  protected  on  three 
sides  and  above. 

The  origin  of  this  idea  of  an  open  court  can  be  traced 
to  China,  and  there  seems  little  doubt  that  its  lineal  de- 
scendant is  the  patio  of  Spain  and  Spanish  America. 
Thus  we  see  an  obscure  early  Chinese  invention  girdling 
the  globe,  coming  to  us  by  way  of  western  Asia,  southern 
Europe,  and  the  Saracens,  and  on  its  way  indirectly 
stamping  itself  upon  the  world's  entire  production  of 
Christian  religious  architecture. 

When  .Constantine  gave  official  recognition  to  the  Chris- 
tians, the  only  thing  he  had  to  offer  them  for  a  place  of 
meeting,  short  of  a  circus,  was  one  of  these  basilicas. 
There,  accordingly,  the  first  services  were  held,  and  when 
one  building  was  outgrown  others  were  added.  Con- 
stantine himself  must  have  continued  to  take  an  interest 
in  the  Roman  flock,  for  he  built  a  special  five-aisled  basil- 
ica of  much  beauty  for  them.  The  Christians  did  not, 
however,  develop  ideas  of  their  own  in  the  matter  ot 

88 


HOW   TO    KNOW   ARCHITECTURE 

buildings,  for  we  find  few  departures  from  type  in  this 
and  all  the  other  early  basilican  churches,  as  the}'  are 
called.  The  churches  were  covered  with  wooden  roofs, 
with  the  trusses,  purlins,  and  rafters  showing.  Several 
of  the  features  of  the  basilicas  are  fundamental  forms  in 
the  churches  to  this  day.  The  enclosure  for  the  king's 
throne,  flanked  by  seats  for  his  chief  counsellors,  became 
the  apse,  containing  the  altar  and  the  bishop's  chairs. 
Outside  of  this,  with  seats  for  the  assisting  priests,  was 
what  is  now  called  the  choir.  The  row  of  columns  divid- 
ing the  central  from  the  side  aisles  was  retained,  being 
increased  in  many  cases,  as  in  Constantine's  basilica,  to 
two  rows  of  columns  on  either  side,  making  a  five-aisled 
building. 

The  transept,  which  in  modern  churches  crosses  in 
front  of  the  altar,  is  purely  Christian,  being  an  evident 
though  later  attempt  to  incorporate  the  Christian  symbol 
of  the  cross  into  the  ground-plan  of  the  structure,  as  in- 
deed it  does  with  greatly  added  beauty  and  majesty. 
You  will  remember  that  we  found  the  churches  in  the 
East  taking  the  form  of  the  Greek  cross  at  a  compara- 
tively early  period.  It  is  quite  probable  that  the  Roman 
Christian  architects  adopted  this  ancient  symbol  from  the 
mystic  East. 

The  use  of  the  cross  as  a  symbol  is  much  older  than 
Christianity.  A  cross  is  used  to  represent  the  symbolic 
hammer  of  the  old  thunder  god  Thor,  among  the  Norse- 
men, and  in  very  early  times  the  north  German  peasants 
made  the  sign  of  the  cross  to  guard  themselves  against 
the  lightning.  Since  prehistoric  times  the  fylfot,  or  four- 
legged  cross,  which  resembles  the  hammer  of  Thor,  was 
used  in  Egypt  and  Greece,  where  it  symbolized  eternal 

90 


BIRTH    OF    CHRISTIAN    ARCHITECTURE 

life.  Many  scientists  claim  it  as  a  symbol  of  ancient 
Phallic  worship — the  deification  of  the  earthly  origin  of 
life.' 

The  Mongolian  cross,  familiar  to-day  as  "Swastika," 
seems  to  be  of  similar  origin.  It  has  a  very  wide  distri- 
bution, being;  found,  for  instance  in  Central  American 

'  O  7 

ruins,  where  it  undoubtedly  again  illustrates  the  wide- 
spread primitive  worship  of  the  mysterious  natural 
phenomenon.  The  sign  was  frequently  used  in  mediaeval 
times  as  a  stone  mark  by  the  Freemasons,  who  were  ap- 
parently ignorant  of  its  earlier  significance. 

The  Christian  cross  is  thus  evidently  an  adaptation, 
as  are  many  other  symbols  of  the  early  Church,  and  it  is 
for  this  reason  that  the  symbolism  did  not  become  estab- 
lished until  the  Church  had  developed  into  a  powerful 
and  wide-spread  organization.  The  differentiation  of  the 
two  forms,  now  known  as  the  Roman  and  Greek  crosses, 
is  odd,  and  had  much  to  do  with  the  division  of  types  in 
the  two  branches  of  Christian  architecture,  the  basilican 
of  Rome,  which  culminated  in  the  Gothic,  and  the  Byzan- 
tine of  the  East.  Owing  to  the  later  infusion  of  Byzan- 
tine influence  in  the  West  it  is  advisable  here  to  differen- 
tiate briefly  the  two  styles. 

In  connection  with  this  it  is  also  of  interest  to  note 
that  while  the  fever  of  church  -  building  was  wringing 
marvels  of  intricate  beauty  from  the  creative  imaginations 
of  the  men  of  the  North,  Italy  went  on  building  Basilican 
churches  for  nearly  a  thousand  years,  and  so  slight  were 
the  changes  made  that  it  is  often  difficult  to  tell  a  church's 
age  within  several  centuries. 

The  chief  distinction  between  Basilican  and  Byzantine 
architecture  is  in  the  roof,  and  in  the  fact  that  there  is  no 

9 1 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

transept  in  the  former.  The  domes  of  the  Byzantine  type 
are  rarely  found  in  the  basilicas,  the  domed  churches  of 
this  period  in  Italy  being  almost  invariably  Byzantine. 
The  basilican  roof  was  much  like  that  of  a  modern  barn, 
heavy  and  simple,  structurally,  because  of  the  use  of  wood. 
The  style  resembles  the  Eastern,  but  differs  from  the  classic 
in  having  no  cniablainre — architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice. 
The  basilicas,  except  in  rare  cases,  were  oblong,  though 
many  of  them  are  either  round  or  octagonal.  A  good 
example  is  St.  Vitalis,  in  Ravenna,  built  by  Justinian  in 
the  sixth  century.  For  the  most  part  the  round  basilica 
evolved  into  the  baptistry,  of  which  Pisa  and  Florence 
have  the  best  examples  of  the  few  still  standing. 

Now,  while  all  this  early  growth  of  Christian  architect- 
ure was  under  way  in  Italy,  other  things  were  happening. 
Rome,  left  without  a  war-like  head,  was  harassed  more 
vigorously  than  ever  by  her  barbarian  enemies,  especially 
the  Goths  of  the  North.  Her  prayers  to  Constantinople 
for  help  were  unanswered,  and  so  we  witness  her  capture 
and  almost  total  destruction  by  the  Northerners  in  the 
beginning  of  the  fifth  century.  Here  was  devastation  and 
disgrace  indeed;  but  it  served  as  a  powerful  stimulant, 
and  a  few  years  later  the  Goths  had  been  driven  back 
and  the  work  of  rebuilding  the  wonderful  old  city  was 
begun  with  vigor.  This  time,  however,  it  was  a  Christian 
city  that  was  rising,  and  gorgeous,  wicked,  old  pagan 
Rome  had  gone  forever. 

The  power  of  the  popes  continued  to  increase,  but  it 
did  not  reach  the  point  of  providing  adequate  defence 
against  invaders,  and  the  Greek  emperor  in  Constanti- 
nople having  failed  them,  we  now  see  the  ecclesiastics 
deep  in  the  game  of  international  politics  to  preserve  the 

92 


BIRTH    OF    CHRISTIAN    ARCHITECTURE 

integrity  of  their  organization.  In  the  eighth  century  the 
pope  having  played  the  Lombards  against  the  Greeks, 
found  the  trick  turned  on  himself,  the  indignant  Lom- 
bards beginning  the  seizure  of  his  headquarters.  To 
save  himself,  he  called  on  the  Franks  for  help.  These 
Franks,  the  forefathers  of  the  French  of  to-day,  had 
earlier  come  under  the  influence  of  Roman  civilization, 
and  had  developed  a  considerable  culture.  They  were 
still,  however,  merely  a  collection  of  independent  cities, 
or  principalities,  and  the  papal  appeal  was  to  the  most 
influential  of  the  mayors,  one  Charles  Martel,  famous 
for  having  saved  Europe  from  the  Saracens  at  the  great 
battle  of  Tours  in  732. 

It  would  be  a  most  interesting  matter  for  imaginative 
conjecture  as  to  what  would  have  happened  had  the 
Saracens  won  this  battle.  Certainly  the  entire  aspect  of 
modern  civilization  would  have  been  quite  other  than  it 
is.  But  we  are  more  nearly  concerned  with  things  as 
they  are,  and  must  move  rapidly  forward  with  the  fortunes 
of  Italy  and  France.  To  Charles  Martel  were  sent  the 
keys  of  St.  Peter's  tomb  in  recognition  of  his  bargain  with 
the  pope,  and  in  return  he  drove  back  the  Lombards. 
Then  the  pope  made  Charles  Martel's  son,  Pepin,  king, 
thus  creating  the  Carlovingian  dynasty  of  France.  Pepin 
had  been  a  general  in  the  service  of  the  last  of  the  Mero- 
vingian overlords,  whom  he  now  forced  to  retirement  in 
a  monastery.  Thus  dynasty  succeeded  dynasty,  with  the 
pope  as  deus  ex  machina  in  those  early  days  of  reckless 
and  endless  strife,  but  all  the  time  the  way  was  being 
opened  for  that  northwestward  sweep  of  civilization  and 
the  arts  that  we  have  been  following  through  the  centuries. 

Pepin  was  succeeded  by  Charlemagne,  or  Charles  the 

93 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

Great,  who  was  great  because  he  began  the  nationalizing 
of  the  Prankish  people,  consolidating  and  confederating 
the  smaller  principalities  upon  a  comparatively  peaceful 
basis  with  the  new  idea  of  unity,  the  result  of  the 
spread  of  Christianity,  as  his  most  potent  ally.  Charle- 
magne is  also  a  notable  figure  for  his  patronage  of  the 
arts,  which  unquestionably  stimulated  building  im- 
measurably. His  own  building  operations,  though  in- 
teresting, have  small  historic  significance,  as  architecture 
rapidly  outgrew  him  in  the  active  succeeding  centuries. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  ninth  century  he  took  Italian 
architects  and  craftsmen  from  Rome  and  Ravenna, 
with  large  quantities  of  Italian  marbles  and  Byzantine 
decorative  materials,  to  his  home  in  the  Far  North,  and 
built  churches  of  much  beauty  after  the  basilican  order, 
notably  at  Aix.  His  tastes  were  conservative,  and  he 
did  much  in  transmitting  to  us  the  older  forms;  but  he 
did  not,  as  some  historians  have  claimed,  lay  the  founda- 
tions for  the  new  style  that  was  then  being  evolved  in 
the  South,  and  that  somewhat  later  \vas  to  blossom  into 
the  Romanesque,  the  precursor  of  the  Gothic. 

The  empire  that  Charlemagne  had  created  did  not 
last.  As  in  the  case  of  the  Greece  of  Alexander  and  the 
Rome  of  Constantine,  the  territory  involved  was  too 
great  for  the  degree  of  cohesive  power  then  attained 
through  civilization,  and  the  succeeding  rulers  were  not 
strong  enough  to  hold  it  together  by  force.  Therefore 
we  see  France  resolving  itself  into  petty  principalities 
again  about  the  year  900. 

The  alliance  of  Church  and  State  had  promised  an  ideal 
condition,  each  in  its  proper  sphere  working  harmonious- 
ly toward  a  common  end — the  political  and  spiritual  ex- 

94 


BIRTH    OF    CHRISTIAN   ARCHITECTURE 

pansion  of  the  people  in  a  logical  and  civilizing  growth. 
But  the  Church  could  not  long  remain  in  its  proper  sphere. 
Its  efforts  for  temporal  power  and  wealth  forced  disin- 
tegration, and  separated  both  rulers  and  ruled  into  an- 
tagonistic groups.  This  naturally  led  to  more  strife  and 
promoted  the  feudal  system  of  small  principalities  and 
kingdoms,  with,  however,  more  or  less  recognition  of  the 
control  of  the  most  powerful  of  the  rulers  or  overlords. 

But  the  Christian  faith  and  Christian  ethics  as  a  co- 
hesive force  are  present  for  the  first  time.  The  world  had 
moved  forward  in  the  preceding  centuries,  and  we  find 
strong  undercurrents  of  nationalism  running  through  these 
separate  principalities,  and  a  certain  indication  of  growth 
that  is  most  significant.  Although  Rome  had  been  the 
birthplace,  so  far  as  the  West  is  concerned,  of  the  Christian 
Church,  the  manifestations  of  its  power  grew  as  it  followed 
"the  course  of  empire."  Our  interest,  therefore,  soon 
advances  into  this  new  and  vital  country  of  the  Franks, 
where  a  vast  store  of  creative  energy  is  beginning  to  find 
outlet  in  fresh  interpretations  of  the  basilican  forms  of 
Italy.  Meanwhile  Rome  itself,  while  holding  its  ecclesias- 
tical power,  and  exercising  it  with  freedom  and  rigor, 
slipped  into  creative  desuetude,  where  it  remained  for 
several  centuries.  We  will  therefore  leave  it  for  the  pres- 
ent, not  to  return  until  a  new  infusion  of  architectural 
blood  stirs  its  congealing  forms  and  gives  it  consequence 
by  exercising  a  new  and  direct  influence  upon  the  styles 
of  to-day. 


CHAPTER  VI 


THE    SECOND    GREAT    TRANSITION 


Rom 


ance 


ACH  important  epoch  in  the  history  of 
Greece,  of  Rome,  and  of  Byzantium  is  re- 
peated in  the  history  of  the  Prankish  coun- 
try; that  is  to  say,  it  began  with  a  vigorous 
commercial  impetus,  and  developed  its  sci- 
ences and  its  arts  under  the  control  of  a 
fresh  and  inspiring  ideal  which  caused  cre- 
ative originality.  This,  as  we  have  seen,  is  less  true  of 
Rome,  as  she  lacked  the  intellectual  and  geographical 
cohesion  of  Greece,  and  because  of  this  was  content  to 
copy  rather  than  to  create. 

This  great  new  country  —  which  for  convenience  we 
will  call  France,  although  it  did  not  actually  become  so 
until  several  centuries  later  —  was  geographically  a  unit, 
the  people  were  practically  of  one  race,  virile  and  fearless, 
and  therefore  the  best  material  for  the  making  of  a  great 
nation. 

'I  his  spirit  was  destined  to  be  held  in  check  for  almost 
a  century,  but  in  the  end  it  blossomed  forth  with  an 
irrepressible  energy  that  lasted  for  nearly  three  hundred 
years.  . 

There    was    building   of  churches    after    the    basilican 

96 


THE    SECOND    GREAT    TRANSITION 

order,  of  course,  during  the  tenth  century,  but  they  were 
for  the  most  part  unimportant,  and  the  reason  is  one  of 
the  curiosities  of  history. 

It  had  become  a  popular  superstition  among  the  early 
Christians  that  the  end  of  the  world  would  come  in  the 
year  one  thousand.  This  perhaps  was  natural,  as  it  was 
not  to  be  expected  that  the  revelations  of  St.  John  the 
Divine  would  then  be  taken  other  than  literally. 

Hut  it  seems  strange  to  find  the  Church  accepting  the 
idea,  and,  long  before  the  fatal  year  arrived,  encouraging 
it  throughout  Christendom. 

The  effect  was,  of  course,  paralyzing.  Commerce  and 
building  stopped  almost  entirely,  people  sold  their  lands 
or  gave  them  away,  often  with  all  they  had,  and  awaited 
the  end  in  idleness  and  fear.  It  took  nearly  a  quarter  of 
a  century  for  the  country  to  recover  from  this  paralysis, 
and  the  full  tide  of  creative  energy  does  not  appear  until 
about  the  year  1 100. 

The  field  of  this  movement  is  broadly  the  lower  half 
of  France,  the  upper  half  developing  somewhat  later  a 
still  more  important  architectural  outburst.  The  growth 
is  wide-spread,  but  its  progress  follows  generally  the  main 
lines  of  trade.  This,  of  course,  follows  the  rivers.  There 
is  the  Rhone,  with  its  headwaters  north  of  Lyons,  in  the 
middle  east  of  France,  and  its  mouth  near  Marseilles,  on 
the  Mediterranean,  a  two-hundred-mile  stretch  of  navigable 
water;  the  Garonne,  running  from  the  south  of  France 
toward  the  west  into  the  Bay  of  Biscay  near  Bordeaux; 
the  Loire,  draining  a  large  area  from  the  centre  of  the 
country  westward  to  the  Atlantic;  and  the  Seine,  running 
northward  into  the  English  Channel.  The  fact  that  the 
principal  cities  are  along  these  main  water-routes  is 

97 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

more  rationally  explained  by  the  parallel  currents  of  trade 
than  by  the  small  child  of  much-travelled  parents  who 
evolved  the  delightful  theory  that  "God  must  be  truly 
good,  as  He  made  all  large  rivers  run  by  big  cities." 

France  then  was  a  network  of  natural  trade-routes, 
and  was  developing  rapidly  because  of  them.  Follow- 
ing the  traders  came  the  priests  and  the  builders,  and  we 
too  must  follow  somewhat  the  same  course,  first,  however, 
glancing  briefly  at  political  conditions. 

The  empire  ot  Charlemagne,  we  remember,  had  been 
broken  up  at  the  end  of  the  ninth  century.  It  remained 
so  until  France  became  a  nation,  about  five  hundred  years 
later.  In  the  mean  time  the  Church,  in  order  to  increase 
its  hold  on  the  people,  had  inaugurated  the  Crusades,  for 
the  capture  of  the  Holy  Land  from  the  unbelievers.  The 
crusading  armies  were  recruited  from  farm  and  shop 
throughout  the  great  European  group  of  little  principali- 
ties, and  made  up  of  followers  of  the  small  overlords,  gen- 
erally forced  into  service.  These  Crusaders,  like  swarms 
of  locusts,  travelled  over  land  and  sea,  and  returned, 
not  under  more  complete  subjection,  but  broadened  by 
extensive  travel  and  with  new  ideas  of  personal  and  civic 
liberty,  to  the  astonishment  and  consternation  of  the 
powers  that  sent  them.  So  we  find  soon  afterward  the 
plain  people  demanding  charters  and  free  cities,  and 
getting  them.  The  spirit  of  Christianity  was  effective 
against  the  corruption  of  it. 

We  are  now  entering  on  the  great  change.  A  new 
language  is  being  formed  from  the  ruins  of  the  old.  '1  he 
ideals  being  different,  the  mode  of  expression  must  differ 
in  order  to  conform.  The  formalism  of  pagan  Rome 
cannot  express  in  stone  and  brick  the  ambitions  and 

98 


THE    SECOND    GREAT    TRANSITION 

desires  of  this  new  people  but  recently  emerged  from  bar- 
barism. 

They  had  no  traditions  but  those  of  the  pungent  and 
powerful  North  Country,  long  since  softened  by  contact 
with  the  legions  of  the  Roman  Empire,  but  in  no  sense 
refined  by  the  association.  I  should  say,  rather  than 
softened,  divided  into  smaller  forces,  and  in  consequence 
more  pliable,  and  thus  better  prepared  for  the  new  re- 
construction which  is  to  take  place. 

The  Roman,  you  remember,  did  not  acquire  the  tech- 
nique, or  the  inventive  power  of  the  Greek,  when  he 
adopted  the  types  and  forms  of  the  Greek  architecture, 
and  was  unable,  on  this  account,  to  leave  his  successors 
the  inventive  keenness  that  would  have  enabled  them  to 
continue  the  development  of  the  post-and-lintel  form  of 
expression. 

The  style  which  we  call  Byzantine,  offshoot  of  the  pure 
Greek  architecture,  and  colored  by  contact  with  the  civ- 
ilization of  the  East,  had  a  far  better  ancestry  than  did  the 
Romanesque,  which  was  created  by  the  people  of  south- 
ern France.  Byzantine  architecture,  too,  developed  in  a 
more  congenial  environment,  the  Westerners  being  in  a 
sense  colonizers  in  a  new  country  as  well  as  in  a  new  form 
of  expression. 

The  Byzantine  type  was  unfortunate  in  that  it  was 
forced  over  the  backward  trail  toward  the  East,  while  civ- 
ilization consistently  moved  westward,  and  in  consequence 
its  influence  did  not,  in  any  great  degree,  assist  in  the 
general  growth  or  in  the  reorganization  of  the  methods 
used  by  science,  or  constructive  art,  in  the  West. 

We  find  these  people  in  southern  France  with  the 
architectural  ruins  of  the  Roman  occupation  for  examples 

99 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

in  concrete  expression,  and  with  no  general  or  settled 
traditions  to  hold  them  to  a  consistent  growth.  They  were 
forced  therefore  to  huild  not  only  with  stone  and  brick  frag- 
ments, hut  with  intellectual  and  scientific  remnants.  They 
had,  however,  this  new  ideal  of  Christianity  as  a  cohesive 
mortar  with  which  to  fit  the  fragments  together  into  a 
complete  and  expressive  scientific  language— a  language 
of  the  common  people,  a  patois  ungrammatical,  perhaps, 
hut  suggestive  of  great  new  forces,  and  actually  die  be- 
ginning of  a  new  era  in  the  form  of  expression. 

Each  section  or  province  of  this  country  of  France  had 
local  influences  that  differentiated  its  building,  so  that 
overzealous  historians  now  confuse  us  with  such  hair- 
splitting in  classifications  as  to  befog  any  one  but  a  dyed- 
in-the-wool  antiquarian. 

The  important  thing  for  us  to  see  is  that  here,  through- 
out this  beautiful  country,  men  were  building  temples  to 
their  new  ideal,  and  that  there  was  a  harmonious,  consist- 
ent development  of  something  more  than  a  transition  from 
one  form  of  expression  to  another.  The  resultant  archi- 
tecture we  call  Romanesque  (Romanish),  though  it  might 
truthfully  be  labelled  Romance,  as  the  spoken  language 
of  this  country  was  called.  Romanesque  architecture 
marks  the  beginning  of  the  constructive  stone  age.  Here, 
for  the  first  time,  we  find  the  wooden  roofs  of  the  Romans 
giving  place  to  stone  vaults.  We  must  remember,  how- 
ever, that  the  vault  and  the  dome  had  been  used  by  the 
Romans  to  some  extent.  This  is  not  in  any  sense  the 
first  appearance  of  the  vault  or  the  arched  form  of  roof 
covering.  The  later  Greeks  had  used  this  form  in  the 
East,  and  the  close  trade  affiliations  of  the  East  and  the 
West  had  introduced  the  method  to  the  Roman,  who  had, 

100 


however,  not  adopted  it  to  the  exclusion  of  the  wooden  truss, 
which  remained  a  characteristic  form  of  the  basilican  roof. 

The  stone  vault,  of  course,  meant  new  problems  in  con- 
struction and  various  changes.  It  also  marked  the  end 
ot  the  purely  post-and-lmtel  form  and  the  beginning  of 
the  buttress-and-arch  form,  which  is  distinctively  a  West- 
ern invention.  The  walls  grew  more  massive,  being 
thickened  to  carry  this  new  load  of  stone  roof  imposed  on 
them;  columns  were  for  the  first  time  united  into  groups, 
forming  parts  of  the  piers,  which  were  used  to  support 
the  loads  at  isolated  points. 

The  round  arch  is  used  in  roof,  in  window  and  door 
openings,  and  in  arcades  as  a  substitute  for  the  lintel  or 
entablature  of  the  classic  above  the  rows  of  columns 
which  separated  the  nave  and  the  aisles  of  the  building, 
and  at  other  points  where  necessary.  The  effect  of  the 
spring  of  two  arches  rising  from  the  capitals  of  single 
columns  was  so  insecure  as  to  require  an  almost  abnormal 
development  of  the  abacus,  or  capping-block,  to  sustain 
the  impression  of  adequate  support  (Fig.  39).  Where  the 


K! 

tie 


FIG.  39 — ROMAN    CAPITALS   AT  MOISSAC,   SHOWING  THK   INCREASED 
SIZli    OF    ABACUS    AND    ORNAMENT    INFLUENCED 

BY    THE    BYZANTINE 
8  101 


HOW   TO    KNOW   ARCHITECTURE 

arches  ran  to  the  walls  they  were  supported  there  on 
rectangular  pilasters  or  incipient  buttresses,  upon  .vhich 
sections  of  columns  were  sometimes  imposed.  The  barrel- 
vault  is  the  common  form  of  ceiling,  with  the  wooden  roof 
above  supported  by  trusses  and  independent  of  the  vault. 
It  is  not  so  low  at  die  peak,  however,  as  the  Greek  pedi- 
ment, showing  the  evolution  from  the  flattened  roofs  of 
the  blue-skyed  Mediterranean  shores,  where  snow  is  un- 
known, to  the  high,  sharp  roofs  of  the  Northern  Cjothic, 
designed  to  shed  snow,  and  used  also  for  structural  reasons 
and  for  a  stronger  sky-line. 

The  apses  of  the  Romanesque  churches  are  round, 
and  generally  elaborated  by  semicircular  niches  or  small 
chapels  of  the  same  form  as  the  apse.  Around  this  part 
of  the  church  on  the  exterior  are  frequently  found  bands 
of  dull-colored  stone  mosaic  of  lava,  flint,  and  other  local 
stones,  a  Byzantine  idea  thus  made  very  un-Byzantine  by 
the  absence  of  brilliant  color. 

In  this  period  begins  the  custom  of  changing  the  form 
of  the  arch  structure  by  reducing  the  plain  rectangle  with 
subdivisions  or  moldings.  In  other  words,  instead  of 
the  arch  appearing  as  a  flat  band,  it  takes  the  form  of  two 
or  more  successive  bands.  The  added  richness  of  this  is 
obvious,  and  the  extent  to  which  it  was  developed  later 
makes  its  beginning  significant. 

It  is  noticeable  in  all  these  features  of  the  Romanesque 
architecture  that  development  was  along  structural  lines. 
While  the  churches  were  steadily  growing  more  elabo- 
rately lovely,  they  were  made  so  by  the  manipulation  ot 
essential  elements  of  construction  rather  than  by  applied 
ornamentation,  in  which  this  whole  Western  movement 
marks  its  essential  divergence  from  the  Byzantine  and 

102 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

strikes  the  keynote  in  the  evolution  of  scientific  archi- 
tectural forms. 

This  will  all  seem  clearer  and  more  vital  to  you  if  you 
visit  with  me  half  a  do/en  of  the  great  Romanesque 
churches.  We  cannot  linger  long  at  each  one  as  I  did, 
and  would  like  to  do  again  with  you,  hut  we  will  try  to 
see  clearly  in  each  the  chief  features  that  identify  them 
as  Romanesque,  and  that  make  them  also  distinctly  local. 

Beginning  on  the  Mediterranean,  we  will  start  up  the 
Rhone,  making  our  first  stop  at  Aries,  which  is  within 
fifty  miles  of  that  ancient  Phoenician  and  Greek  city, 
Marseilles.  In  Aries  is  the  wonderful  old  Church  of  St. 
Trophime  (Fig.  40),  built  in  the  early  part  of  the  twelfth 
century.  It  is  in  the  facade  of  this  church  that  its  in- 
dividuality is  expressed,  though  other  parts  of  it  are 
supremely  fine.  Dominating  the  facade  is  the  large, 
round-arched  entrance,  which  is  lavishly  enriched  with 
sculpture  and  sculptured  ornament.  The  porch  projects 
slightly  from  the  face  of  the  building,  and,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  curious  high  base  on  which  the  columns 
rest  and  the  upper  part  of  the  pediment,  is  literally  cov- 
ered with  apostles  and  saints  of  all  sizes. 

The  tympanum,  or  half-round  panel  over  the  door,  is 
a  sculptured  representation  of  Christ  and  the  evangels. 
The  story  of  Christianity  is  thus  visualized  in  most 
elaborate  fashion,  a  custom  we  find  common  in  all  these 
early  churches,  because  in  those  days  reading  was  a  rare 
accomplishment  and  pictures  must  tell  the  story.  The 
arch  of  the  doorway  itself  has  gained  much  in  beauty  by 
recessed  and  otherwise  elaborated  moldings  —  a  char- 

c*» 

acteristic  Romanesque  improvement  that,  however,  was 
far  outdone  later. 

104 


FIG.    41 — ROMANESQUE    PORTAL   AT   ST.    GILLES,    FRANCE 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 


The  sculptures  are,  of  course,  crude  compared  either 
to  our  standards  of  to-day  or  to  the  standards  of  ancient 
Greece,  but  in  the  mass,  with  the  exquisitely  elaborated 
fret  detail  of  frieze  and  cornices  and  incidental  mold- 
ings, they,  representing  the  highest  human  effort  of  their 
time,  delight  us  beyond  measure.  It  is  interesting  to 

refer  you  back  for  compar- 
ison of  the  fret  ornament  to 
the  drawing  of  the  tomb  of 
Alexander  (Fig.  21). 

Near  Aries  is  St.  Gilles 
(Figs.  41,  42),  where,  if  our 
journey  were  in  the  flesh, 
we  would  spend  a  profita- 
ble day  in  an  examination 
of  the  cathedral.  We  will, 
however,  look  only  at  the 
porch,  which  compares  in- 
terestingly with  St.  Troph- 
ime.  The  two  churches  are 
of  about  the  same  period, 
but  St.  Gilles  has  three  en- 
trances instead  of  one,  as 
at  Aries.  The  treatment  is 
somewhat  similar  with  the 
characteristic  recessed  arch- 
moldings  and  carved  lintel, 
but  the  artist  finds  it  less 
completely  satisfying  than 

the  harmonious  entrance  of  St.  Trophime.  The  builders 
seem  to  have  pilfered  old  columns  from  wherever  the}'  could 
(as  it  was  a  habit  of  the  time  to  build  on  the  ruins  and 

1 06 


FIG.  42 — DETAIL  OF  PORTAL  AT 
ST.    GILLFS,    FRANCE 

Observe  the  use  of  the  Greek  fret 
and  compare  with  the  tomb  of 
Alexander  the  Great  (Fig.  21) 


THE    SECOND    GREAT    TRANSITION 

with  the  ruins),  and  to  have  designed  their  porch  within 
the  limitations  of  such  miscellaneous  material.  The 
columns  are  of  most  various  lengths  and  shapes,  and  are 
used  with  great  ingenuity,  but  not  well  enough  to  avoid 
fussiness  or  to  be  quite  convincing.  There  is  the  same 
lavish  use  of  sculptured  saints  in  frieze,  cap,  and  corbel 
as  at  Aries,  and  in  all  other  respects  it  is  of  about  equal 
interest  and  merit. 

We  must  now  journey  northward  about  one  hundred 
miles  to  Le-Puy-en-Velay  for  a  brief  study  of  a  most  in- 
teresting variation  in  church  building  within  the  general 
classification  of  Romanesque.  Notre  Dame  du  Puy, 
though  of  this  same  period  (Fig.  43),  shows  a  most  curi- 
ous Byzantine  influence  on  the  one  hand  and  a  prophetic 
foretaste  of  the  Gothic  on  the  other.  You  will  at  once 
notice  the  absence  of  the  sculpture  so  lavishly  used  in 
the  Southern  churches  we  have  seen,  and  the  use  of  vari- 
colored stone  as  decorative  substitute.  We  can  hardly 
do  justice  to  the  mellow  harmonies  of  the  alternating 
courses  of  warm  yellow  and  reds.  The  idea  is  distinctly 
Byzantine,  and  the  parentage  is  even  more  apparent  in 
the  treatment  of  the  pediment  at  the  top  that  marks  the 
end  of  the  nave  and  the  smaller  open  arches  at  the  sides, 
which  centre  over  the  side  entrances.  All  are  strongly 

O   J 

suggestive  of  the  later  development  of  the  pointed  Byzan- 
tine forms  in  Siena  and  Orvieto. 

Notice  that  the  central  arches  of  the  facade  are  not 
round,  but  slightly  pointed.  Here  we  have  the  pointed 
Gothic  arch  which  we  will  find  of  so  much  importance 
later  on.  The  development  of  the  pointed  from  the 
round  arch  is  an  example  of  purely  mechanical  and  utili- 
tarian evolution  that  carried  with  it,  to  supreme  individuali- 

107 


FIG.  — NOTRK     DAM1.    DU     Pt'V,    I.K-I't  V-I-  N-V  Kl.AY,    I  RANCH 


THE    SECOND    GREAT   TRANSITION 

zation,  a  complete  art.  It  must  be  remembered,  however, 
that  the  origin  of  the  pointed  form  is  lost  in  obscurity 
and  in  the  claims  of  antiquarians.  For  our  purpose  it  is 
just  at  this  period  coming  into  its  own,  and  can  be  con- 
sidered as  an  evolutionary  growth,  as  if  it  had  never  before 
existed. 

Notre  Dame  du  Puy  is,  however,  truly  Romanesque, 
though  it  has  not  the  majestic  beauty  of  the  other  ex- 
amples. It  is  large  even  for  that  day  of  great  edifices, 
and  to  the  technical  student  of  architecture  will  repay 
careful  study. 

There  is  a  very  interesting  example  of  Romanesque  at 
Issoire,  fifty  miles  northwest  of  Le-Puy,  in  the  Church  of 
St.  Paul.  It  was  built  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eleventh 
century,  and  also  shows  traces  of  Byzantine  influence  in 
the  free  use  of  mosaic  decoration  in  colored  stone,  both 
within  and  without.  This  church  also  has  very  little 
carving  or  sculpture.  It  is  of  especial  interest  by  reason 
of  the  development  of  the  apse  and  the  novelty  of  its 
tower,  which  is  octagonal  and  two-storied  above  the  roof. 
The  apse  has  a  singularly  effective  arrangement  of  cir- 
cular bays.  The  interior  of  St.  Paul's  is  worked  out  with 
simple  round  arches. 

Of  the  same  period  and  with  much  the  same  type  of 
decoration,  making  it  really  a  sister  church,  is  Notre 
Dame  du  Port  at  Clermont-Ferrand,  fifteen  miles  away 
(Figs.  44,  45).  Its  most  distinctive  features  are  its  en- 
trances, one  of  which  I  have  reproduced.  The  oddity 
of  it  is  obvious,  and  I  think  you  will  admire  with 
me  the  nice  balance  of  line  and  mass  and  the  vig- 
orously recessed  moldings  which  shape  the  sculptured 
decorations  so  effectively.  The  influence  that  creat- 

109 


!1()\V    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 


ed   this    entrance    is    evidently  that   of  Asia    Minor  and 
Greece. 

At  Perigueux,  in  the  Garonne  valley,  and  but  seventy- 
five  miles  from  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  is  a  most  interesting 
and  beautiful  waif  of  the 
East,  the  Cathedral  of  St. 
Front  (Fig.  46).  There  are 
just  three  cathedrals  in  the 
world  of  this  type.  The 
first  is  St.  Sophia  (Divine 
Wisdom),  built  in  Constan- 
tinople by  Justinian  in  the 
sixth  century  (532-537), 
which  we  have  studied  as  a 
typical  example  of  pure  By/- 
antine.  The  second  is  the 
famous  St.  Mark's  at  Venice, 
and  the  third  is  this  church 
of  Perigueux.  St.  Mark's 
was  built  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  eleventh  century  (1063- 
1071),  and  St.  Front,  so  much 
like  it,  in  1120,  though  hun- 
dreds of  miles  of  difficult  FHRRAND,  !•  RANCH 
Country  Separated  the  two  Observe  the  Greek  "uplift  "in  the 
locations.  And  a  hundred  centre  in  connection  with  the 

...  .  round  Byzantine  arch 

miles  in  those  days  was  much 

more  than  a  thousand  to-day.     It  is  almost  as  strange  as 
if  one  were  to  find  a  Greek  temple  in  the  heart  of  Japan. 
The  probable  explanation   is  that  Venetian   merchant- 
men,  daring  the  dangers  of  the  open   Atlantic,   through 
the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  and  carrying  with  them  wander- 

1 10 


FIG.  44 — DOORWAY    OF    NOTRE 
DAMK    DU    1'OKT,  CI.KRMONT- 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

ing  craftsmen,  men  probably  who  had  been  giving  their 
years  to  the  building  of  St.  Mark's  and  had  grown  restless, 
put  in  to  the  Garonne,  the  first  seaport  beyond  the  land 
of  the  Saracen,  for  water.  There  they  builded  as  they 
knew,  and  though  the  church  is  of  the  greatness  and  im- 
portance of  the  contemporary  Romanesque,  it  is  in  most 
of  its  features  of  quite  another  ilk.  The  majestic  group 
of  domes  with  their  surmounting  pinnacles  remind  us  at 
once  of  Constantinople.  The  plan  of  the  church  is  the 
Greek  cross,  which,  of  course,  stamps  it  finally  and  in- 


FIG.  46 — CATHEDRAL  OF  ST.  FRONT,  PERIGUEUX,  FRANCE 

112 


THE    SECOND    GREAT    TRANSITION 

evitably  as  Byzantine,  though  the  Eastern  influence  is 
pronounced  in  almost  every  detail.  There  was  little 
time  used  on  decoration,  however.  The  interior  is  un- 
decorated,  simple,  and  massive.  The  piers  supporting 
the  vaults  have  neither  columns  nor  caps,  gold  nor  jewels. 
Their  beauty  is  their  honest  strength.  The  arches  show 
the  Western  influence,  being  slightly  pointed. 

There  is  a  characteristic  common  to  these  Romanesque 
churches  that  has  impressed  me  strongly.  I  have  sketched 
and  measured  them,  made  "rubbing's"  of  their  decorative 

7  O 

detail  with  shoemakers'  wax,  attended  worship,  baptisms, 
and  weddings  with  their  congregations.  I  have  watched 
the  brown  and  wrinkled  market-women  buying  candles 
for  the  Black  Virgin,  and  gaining  thereby  such  content 
as  all  the  philosophies  of  times  could  not  offer  them.  It 
has  helped  to  tell  the  same  story,  the  story  of  a  Church  and 
a  people  welded  together  with  an  intimacy  we  newer 
nations  do  not  know  and  can  hardly  understand.  These 
old  cathedrals  of  southern  France  were  as  much  part  of 
the  life  around  them  as  their  kitchens  were  to  the  house- 
wives. They  were  knit  into  the  social  fabric  as  no  similar 
institutions  could  be  in  America.  The  churches  them- 
selves express  this,  and  as  the  people  were  of  simple,  rug- 
ged, unquestioning  faith,  so  their  churches  tell  the  story,  giv- 
ing a  message,  fearless  in  expression,  of  hope  and  uplifting 
contentment  (Fig.  47).  Thus  we  see  science  interpreting 
the  idealism  of  a  people  for  them  with  truth  and  sincerity, 
and  in  so  doing  strengthening  that  idealism,  as  it  always 
will.  So  from  the  fearlessness  of  the  Romanesque  period 
— a  fearlessness  to  which  success  in  trade  and  war  con- 
tinued to  contribute  —  we  will  see  evolved  the  finished 
glories  of  the  Gothic.  Greek  architecture  is  intellectual  and 

"3 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

aristocratic,  the  Romanesque  reflects  the  faith  and  hope 
of  the  newly  inspired  plain  people,  and  the  Gothic  will 
proclaim  the  fearlessness  and  sublimity  of  human  ma- 
turity. 

Only  the  architect-student  who  has  become  familiar 
with  the  maze  of  mathematical  formula?  that  constitute 
the  rules  of  proportion  which  were  used  by  these  people 
can  fully  understand  the  wonder  of  their  achievements. 
Measure  and  analyze  as  he  will,  he  will  rind  these  formulae 
in  operation  back  through  the  periods  to  Athens  and 
beyond.  Every  form,  everv  curve  and  turn  of  every 
molding  in  the  Greek  temples  and  in  the  Gothic  cathe- 
drals is  as  mathematically  true  to  the  laws  as  scientific 
skill  could  make  them.  You  may  say  that  the  Greeks 
created  and  that  the  cathedral  builder  adopted  these  laws, 
but  they  were  as  truly  inherited  laws  then  as  now,  and 
twenty  centuries  of  experiment  have  failed  to  produce 
a  single  improvement.  With  the  evolution  of  architec- 
ture new  requirements  were  met  and  additional  rules 
grew  out  of  the  solutions,  but  the  old  ones  are  never 
changed. 

The  strangest  part  of  all  this  is  that  a  great  many  of  the 
formulae  that  we  use  had  practically  all  to  be  discovered 
over  again.  Of  ancient  literature  on  the  subject  there 
are  but  the  smallest  fragments  saved.  Of  plans  or  even 
of  models  covering  the  period  we  have  so  far  reviewed 
there  are  almost  none,  though  the  sculpture  of  the  churches 
tells  us  some  of  the  story.  What  treasures  of  this  sort  were 
burned  and  destroyed  because  of  war,  and  the  looting  and 
destruction  of  cities,  cannot  be  guessed,  but  there  seems 
good  reason  to  avoid  vain  regrets  on  this  score.  Such 
things  simply  were  not  preserved  except  in  the  remarkable 

114 


FIG.  47 — TOWER    OF    ST.    PIERRE    AT   ANGOULEME,    FRANCE 


HOW   TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

memories  of  a  few  men,  and  with  them  most  of  the  secrets 
died. 

For  architecture  was  in  those  mediaeval  days  more  or  less 
a  secret  art,  its  mysteries  were  carefully  guarded  within 
a  group  kept  as  small  as  actual  demands  would  permit, 
its  primary  purpose  being  the  preservation  of  the  secrets 
ot  the  craft  as  well  as  the  protection  of  its  members.  The 
group  later  came  to  be  called  a  lodge,  and  the  architect  was 
the  master  of  the  lodge.  Here  \ve  have  the  origin  of  our 
masonic  fraternity  of  to-day,  which,  however,  has  become 
almost  totally  dissociated  from  the  building  craft  except 
in  elements  of  symbolism  and  ritual. 

J 

What  the  secrets  of  the  ancient  masons  were  we  can 
only  discover  by  study  of  their  works.  There  is  little 
doubt  that  it  was  the  rule  to  destroy  all  plans  and  models 
upon  the  completion  of  the  buildings,  and  whatever  records 
of  the  ancient  formulae  were  kept  in  the  archives  of  the 
lodges  have  either  been  lost  or  are  no  longer  identifiable  as 
such.  There  is,  of  course,  much  of  the  beautiful  masonic 
ritual  that  is  of  very  ancient  origin  and  it  is  colored  by  the 
occupation  of  its  originators,  but  brother  Masons  will 
agree  with  me  that  the  secrets  of  the  order  are  not  archi- 
tectural. 

The  fraternity  claims  the  building  of  King  Solomon's 
Temple  as  its  birthtime  and  place,  and  this  to  the  archxol- 
ogist  seems  a  very  modest  claim  of  antiquity.  There  is 
not  the  least  reason  why  guilds  of  builders  should  not  have 
come  into  being  in  China,  India,  or  Egypt,  where  most 
intricate  building  problems  were  solved  long  before 
Solomon's  time,  though  I  have  been  unable  to  find  record 
of  them. 

Of  the  architects  of  Greece  and  their  methods  we  know 

116 


THE    SECOND    GREAT   TRANSITION 

a  little  from  the  writing  of  Vitruvius,  who  lived  in  the 
first  century.  But  modern  science  has  shown  us  with 
what  infinite  care  they  must  have  determined  the  propor- 
tions of  the  building  and  the  detail  of  its  smallest  fillet. 

O 

With  what  fine  sense  of  truth  did  they  curve  the  profile  of 
the  column  to  make  it  seem  right,  overcoming  by  rules 
the  optical  illusions  caused  by  parallel  lines  or  profiles 
against  the  blue  of  the  atmosphere. 

In  Rome,  history  tells  us,  the  architect  as  an  individual 
was  highly  esteemed,  statues  being  erected  to  him  and  im- 
perial honors  conferred  upon  him.  He  also  had  his  taxes 
remitted  in  some  cases,  which  probably  pleased  him  greatly. 

But  it  is  not  until  Christian  times  that  we  find  the  guilds 
of  craftsmen  becoming  historically  prominent.  These 
men  were  inevitably  saturated  with  the  idealism  of 
Christianity,  and  in  seeking  to  give  it  tangible  expression 
in  the  churches  they  built  they  must  have  been  important 
factors  in  creating  its  intricate  symbolism.  This  sym- 
bolism became  part  of  the  paraphernalia  of  their  own 
organization,  and  is  still  to  be  found  in  Freemasonry. 

These  men,  often  in  the  security  of  special  papal  bulls, 
travelled  over  Europe  in  groups,  marking  their  pathways 
by  the  secret  symbols  and  stone-masons'  signs  of  the 
craft  on  the  stones  they  built  into  church  and  castle. 

A  curiosity  of  the  unwritten  history  of  the  guilds  was 
the  evident  rivalry  between  their  members  and  die  monks, 
who  themselves  developed  much  skill  in  building  and 
assisted  largely  in  the  development  of  Christian  symbolism. 
The  grotesque  caricatures  of  monks  which  ornament  caps 
and  corbels  on  many  mediaeval  churches  could  hardly 
have  been  done  by  monks  themselves,  for  they  are  most 
ungenially  and  mockingly  satirical.  The  wonder  is  that 
9  "7 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

the  monks  should  not  have  had  sufficient  influence  to  pre- 
vent their  use,  or  that  they  might  have  had  sufficient  sense 
of  humor  to  accept  them.  It  is,  by-the-way,  to  he  ob- 
served that  the  masons  were  never  disrespectful  in  their 
treatment  of  the  ideals  of  the  religion. 

When  we  reach  the  Gothic  period  we  find  the  ancient 
symbolism  of  numbers  and  geometrical  forms  appearing 
in  Christian  architecture,  and  again  we  divine  the  work 
of  the  mystery-loving  masons.  The  odd  numbers,  es- 
pecially three,  five,  and  seven,  were  held  to  have  peculiar 
significance  in  early  times.  So  we  find  these  numbers 
repeating  themselves  throughout  the  plan,  and  even  the 
minute  detail  of  ornamentation  in  the  Gothic  churches. 

The  Roman  cross  plan,  for  example,  was  an  arrange- 
ment of  squares.  Five  squares  formed  the  nave  and 
apse,  and  three  the  transept.  The  central  square  of  the 
latter  coinciding  with  the  square  in  front  of  the  apse  makes 
the  total  seven,  the  number  of  perfection. 

As  the  square  is  the  basis  of  the  plan,  so  the  equilateral 
triangle,  symbol  of  justice,  is  the  basis  of  the  elevation, 
as  it  was  in  Greek  times.  All  spacing  and  planning  of 
piers  and  grouped  columns,  of  cap  and  groined  rib,  of 
grouped  window  openings  and  rose  windows  can  be  re- 
solved into  the  equal-sided  triangle.  You  may  carry  the 
analysis  to  almost  any  length,  and  it  grows  more  surpris- 
ing as  you  proceed. 

These  undoubtedly  were  some  of  the  secrets  of  the 
early  lodges,  held,  in  those  times  of  popular  ignorance,  to 
be  of  great  import  and  value.  And  indeed  they  are  still 
of  value  to  the  architect,  and  are  obscure  enough  to  elude 
the  casual  observation  of  the  layman.  Hut  still  more 
mysterious  were  the  rules  by  which  both  perpendicular 

118 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

and  horizontal  perspective  was  falsified,  ordinary  vaults 
made  to  seem  immensely  high  and  short  naves  longer 
than  they  really  were.  These  things  involved  the  most 
astonishing  variations  from  the  right  angle  and  the  straight 
line,  imperceptible  to  all  except  the  most  persistent  in- 
vestigator, and  it  is  quite  certain  that  many  of  the  tricks 
or  rules  by  which  these  things  were  done  are  still  among 
the  lost  secrets  of  the  craft. 

There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  many  of  these  varia- 
tions in  the  height  and  width  of  arches,  the  concave  or 
convex  curve  in  cornice  and  belt  mold,  the  leaning  in  or 
out  of  the  pier  or  wall,  were  the  result  of  individual  effort 
on  the  part  of  the  architect  and  builder,  or  the  craftsman 
employed  in  the  construction  of  the  building. 

While  the  general  proportion  in  mass  and  detail  was 
subject  to  fixed  laws,  these  departures  from  symmetrical 
regularity  were  common  and  personal,  and  were  frequent- 
ly the  result  of  accident  or  inaccurate  measurements.  In 
spite  of  this  it  is  a  fact  that  optical  illusions  were  recog- 
nized and  scientifically  provided  for.  Modern  scientists 
have  analyzed  these  laws  of  adjustment  and  correction 
with  minute  care,  and  as  a  result  find  a  continuous  and 
logical  endeavor  (a  law  in  itself)  made  to  overcome  the 
cold-blooded  interpretation  of  rules. 

We  thus  see  that  the  development  of  architectural 
styles  through  the  early  and  middle  ages,  before  the  era 
of  text-books,  photography,  or  the  popularization  of 
knowledge,  was  dependent  upon  an  unb'roken  succession 
of  skilled  craftsmen,  not  mere  mechanics  or  academicians, 
but  men  of  highly  specialized  abilities.  These  men, 
though  handicapped  in  a  hundred  ways  as  no  architect 
of  to-day  is  handicapped,  were  to  erect  monuments  of 

1 20 


JO 


THE    SECOND    GREAT   TRANSITION 

such   enduring  beauty  and  magnificence  that  the  world 
will  marvel  as  long  as  one  stone  remains  upon  another. 

We  must  mention  that  the  Romanesque  style  had  as  its 
chief  interpreter  in  this  country  the  late  H.  H.  Richard- 
son, of  Boston,  a  man  of  singular  ability,  and  that  no 
Romanesque  of  any  consequence  has  been  done  by  other 
men,  though  many  unhappy  attempts  have  been  made. 
Trinity  Church  in  Boston  is  perhaps  a  supreme  modern 
example  of  this  style.  The  central  dome  was  inspired  by 
the  Spanish  church  in  Salamanca  (twelfth  century),  and 
Richardson,  with  his  masterly  freedom,  showed  in  the 
details  of  the  church  not  only  pure  Romanesque,  but  the 
later  type  that  had  lost  itself  in  the  development  of  the 
Gothic.  The  Gallilee  porches  which  were  added  to  the 
church  by  pupils  of  this  architect  were  inspired  by  the 
porches  of  St.  Trophime  at  Aries,  in  the  south  of  France, 
and  are  pure  Romanesque  (Fig.  48). 


FIG.  51 — ROMANESQUE    BRACKET   AT   MOISSAC,    FRANCE 

123 


HOW   TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

The  entrances  to  the  Pittsburg  Court-House  (Fig.  49) 
and  to  the  City  Hall  in  Albany,  New  York  (Fig.  50),  are 
typical  examples  of  his  style.  There  are  apartment- 
houses,  banks,  stores,  and  school-houses  by  scores  in  tins 
style,  most  of  which  could  only  be  used  as  horrible 
examples. 

Fig.  51  is  a  sketch  from  the  cloisters  in  Moissac,  in 
the  south  of  France.  It  is  from  these  examples  that 
Richardson  developed  his  small  parts  in  the  composi- 
tion of  his  Modern  Romanesque. 


CHAPTER  VII 

PREPARATION    FOR   THE    GOTHIC 

"N  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  of  our 
era  the  people  of  northern  France  reached  the 
world's  high-water  mark  in  architecture.  There 
has  been  nothing  that  compared  with  it  before, 
and  there  has  been  nothing  since.  We  adapt  and 
imitate  with  skill,  using  the  heritage  of  all  the  ages, 
and  we  have  built  with  common  sense  and  beauty. 
Yet  there  is  not  the  least  question  of  our  inability  to 
equal  the  work  of  these  daring  experimenters  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  It  is  an  extraordinary,  almost  inconceivable  thing, 
of  course,  and  one  of  the  very  big  facts  of  the  whole  his- 
tory of  style.  I  want  you  to  understand  very  clearly  why 
it  is  that  in  these  last  five  most  marvellous  centuries  of 
the  world's  progress,  architecture  as  an  art  has  made  not 
one  real  creative  step  forward;  why,  in  other  words,  the 
apogee  of  a  glorious  art  should  have  been  reached  in 
mediaeval  times,  among  a  semi-barbarous  and  in  many 
ways  subject  people.  To  explain  this  so  that  it  may  be 
quite  apparent  it  is  necessary  to  review  briefly  the  political, 
social,  and  religious  conditions  of  Europe  at  this  time, 
for  we  must  not  expect  to  find  an  explanation  of  the  Gothic 
phenomenon  apart  from  the  life  of  the  people  among 
whom  it  came  into  being. 

125 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

In  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  when  the 
first  signs  of  the  Gothic  awakening  are  seen,  the  feudal 
system  had  not  yet  been  outgrown.  The  continent  was 
still  cut  up  into  little  personal  kingdoms  ruled  by  men  who, 
notwithstanding  their  outward  allegiance  to  an  overlord, 
were  still  absolute  in  their  own  territory.  The  national 
idea  was  asserting  itself  more  and  more,  however,  and 
proving  a  most  potent  leaven  in  the  movement  we  are 
tracing. 

O 

While  the  feudal  holdings  were  not  abolished  in  France 
until  1789,  the  feudal  lords  were  losing  their  power  at  this 
time  because  of  the  growing  domination  of  the  king,  who 
had  himself  received  his  fief  from  God.  It  was  on  this 
basis  that  the  head  of  the  Church  claimed  the  right,  as 
the  sole  representative  of  the  Divine  power  on  earth,  of 
stepping  between  the  king  and  the  people  as  well  as  be- 
tween the  king  and  God  himself. 

As  the  power  of  the  political  and  ecclesiastical  feudal 
lords  diminished,  the  domain  of  the  king  very  naturallv 
increased  in  force  and  the  national  spirit  began  to  develop. 
This  idea  had  its  most  vigorous  supporters  among  the 
more  intelligent  and  ambitious  of  the  untitled  people— 
the  commons — who,  awakened  to  a  sense  of  their  power 
and  their  rights,  were  rapidly  forcing  their  way  to  recog- 
nition. Here  in  the  Middle  Ages  were  the  forebears  of  the 
dominant  middle  classes  of  our  own  time,  and  also  of  our 
modern  political  system  of  government. 

This  growing  spirit  of  individualism  and  nationalism 
had  its  influence  in  changing  the  relation  of  the  people  to 
religion.  Religious  freedom  was  practically  under  the  ex- 
clusive control  of  the  official  Church,  an  ecclesiastical 
oligarchy  that  dominated  with  relentless  strength  the  lives 

126 


PREPARATION    FOR    THE    GOTHIC 

of  all  the  people.  Now  people  began  daring  to  think 
a  little  for  themselves,  and  to  take  individual  responsibility 
for  their  conduct  and  their  ideals.  Out  of  this  individu- 
alism grew  the  national  spirit,  or  aspiration  for  a  national 
ideal,  as  opposed  to  the  ideal  of  ecclesiastical  institution- 
alism.  The  latter  weakened  as  the  former  grew.  The 
effect  on  the  creations  which  science  erected  to  the  ideal 
is  apparent  through  the  progressive  stages  of  development. 

The  acceptance  by  rulers  and  ruled  of  the  claim  of 
supreme  authority  on  the  part  of  the  Church  gave  tem- 
poral as  well  as  spiritual  power  to  the  popes,  and  they 
wielded  it  unstintedly,  often  unmercifully,  over  lords  and 
commons  alike.  Power  bred  arrogance  in  time,  and 
kings  who  failed  of  prompt  obedience  to  Rome  received 
excommunication,  under  which  they  were  as  powerless  as 
the  poorest  peasant.  The  pope's  representatives,  men  of 
the  monastic  orders,  were  responsible  to  him  directly  and 
to  him  only,  and  the  civil  powers  thus  found  themselves 
constantly  overruled,  in  the  government  of  their  own  ter- 
ritory, by  the  priests.  The  inevitable  result  was  political 
and  religious  warfare,  which  has  continued  to  this  day  in 
the  Latin  countries. 

During  this  time  the  monasteries  and  cathedral  chapters 
had  been  growing  powerful  and  wealthy,  offering  oppor- 
tunities to  the  younger  sons  of  the  ambitious  nobility. 
Many  of  these  men  through  family  influence  became 
bishops  and  overlords  in  this  feudal  system  of  the  Church, 
but  with  more  divided  allegiance  than  was  shown  by  the 
monks.  They  were  men  of  education,  and  were  more 
often  influenced  by  local  and  family  tradition  than  by 
reverence  for  papal  power,  and,  while  they  were  fathers 
of  the  Church,  they  were  also  fathers  of  their  own  people. 

127 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

Local  pride  often  proved  stronger  with  the  lay  priests 
than  the  petty  and  irritating  mandates  of  the  Vatican,  so 
it  came  about  that  one  by  one  they  insisted  on  more  or  less 
individual  liberty  in  temporal  affairs,  aided  therein  by  the 
disaffected  lords  and  the  awakening  commons. 

In  France,  and,  in  fact,  throughout  Europe,  this  middle 
class  had  become  the  traders  and  merchants,  and  because 
of  prosperous  conditions  had  grown  in  wealth  till  they 
were  in  a  position  to  demand  recognition  from  the  no- 
bility, so  that  about  this  time  we  begin  to  find  them  getting 
a  hand  in  the  government.  With  the  reversion  from 
despotic  one-man  rule  the  assemblies  of  estates  came  into 
being  as  a  forerunner  of  popular  government.  These 
assemblies — such,  for  instance,  as  the  early  Parliament  of 
England,  the  States  General  of  France,  the  Cortes  of 
Spain,  the  Diet  of  Germany — were  made  up  of  the  no- 
bility, the  local  clergy,  or  lay  bishops,  and  selected  repre- 
sentatives of  the  commons,  or  free,  untitled  men.  Their 
purpose  was  to  provide  the  kings  with  money  and  advice, 
who,  if  they  did  not  aKvays  take  the  advice,  at  least  are 
not  accused  of  ever  having  refused  the  money. 

This  new  method  of  government  had  much  to  do  with 
the  growth  of  the  national  idea,  but  equally  potent  were 
the  leagues  of  the  cities  for  the  protection  of  the  trade 
routes  against  Eastern  invaders,  and  the  encroachments 
of  the  grafting,  petty  barons.  This  brought  about  the  de- 
velopment of  more  friendly  trade  relations,  and  a  gradual 
relaxation  of  the  old  interurban  enmity  into  a  half-friendly 
but  spirited  rivalry  which  plays  a  most  important  part  in 
architectural  development. 

Meanwhile,  the  guilds  of  the  Freemasons  had  grown 
and  fused  into  a  loose  international  organization  of  con- 

'  128 


PREPARATION    FOR    THE    GOTHIC 

siclerable  power,  and  with  some  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
labor-unions  of  to-day.  Their  members  were  often  pos- 
sessors of  that  irremediable  defect  or  blessing  (according 
to  the  point  of  view),  the  artistic  and  constructive  tempera- 
ment, and  were,  therefore,  of  a  wandering  and  insatiable 
disposition,  much  given  to  conviviality  and  comradeship  of 
a  warm-hearted  sort.  Their  need  of  protection  from  the 
barons  and  their  desire  to  keep  the  mysteries  of  the  craft 
from  outsiders  led  them  to  band  themselves  together  in 
lodges,  to  adopt  passwords  and  secret  signs  and  signals; 
while  the  mysteries  themselves  were  most  carefully 
guarded,  many  of  these  forms,  as  we  have  noted,  remain 
with  the  Freemasons  to  this  day,  though  they  have  lost, 
to  a  large  extent,  their  original  significance. 

The  Reformation  was  not  far  in  the  future,  and  the 
spirit  of  intellectual  revolt  was  wide-spread  and  deep- 
seated.  The  organization  had  reached  the  limit  of  its 
temporal  power,  and  the  pendulum  was  poised  to  swing 
the  other  way.  The  momentum  that  fairly  carried  the 
young  civilization  off*  its  feet  landed  it  with  little  damage 
except  a  blood-soaking  upon  heights  far  above  its  old  level. 

But  there  is  one  element  in  the  strength  and  rapidity 
of  this  movement  that  centred  in  northern  France.  It 
colors  and  vivifies  all  other  elements  in  unique  fashion, 
and  to  it  must  be  given  a  large  measure  of  credit  for 
the  stupendous  architectural  achievement  of  the  time. 
This  is  a  distinct  change  of  national  temperament,  due 
partly,  perhaps,  to  the  more  rigorous  climate  of  the 
North,  but  chiefly  to  the  infusion  of  new  and  redder  blood. 
During  many  centuries  the  Norsemen,  or  Northmen,  wild 
wanderers  and  vagabonds,  had  been  invading  the  shores 
of  England  and  Europe.  They  were  the  most  fearless 

129 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

men  of  the  time,  defying  the  storms  of  the  North  Sea  and 
the  North  Atlantic  in  open  boats,  fighting  like  piratical 
demons  against  every  foe,  and  living  on  the  proceeds. 
England  bought  them  off  when  she  could.  France  took 
them  in  and  absorbed  them,  and  because  of  this  we  have 
the  Normandy  of  to-day. 

It  is  a  most  curious  combination  of  characteristics  that 
shows  itself  in  these  righting  Northmen.  Lacking,  ap- 
parently, any  strong  national  unity,  their  identity  quickly 
disappears  in  other  countries.  So  in  Kngland  they  be- 
came English,  and  in  France  French.  They  readily  ac- 
cepted the  Christian  religion,  and  became  professional 
soldiers,  or  sailors,  or  craftsmen.  But  though  their  na- 
tionalism disappeared,  their  boldness,  strength,  and 
virility  did  not.  On  the  contrary,  it  infused  itself  into 
the  absorbing  nation  with  vast  benefit  thereto. 

So  we  find  in  northern  France,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  a  people,  made  virile  and  fearless  by 
the  blood  of  the  cold  North,  in  revolt  against  ecclesiastical 
domination  and  the  old  forms  and  outgrown  traditions, 
and  inspired  to  vast  ambition  by  success  in  trade,  the 
broadening  of  the  civil  life,  and  the  fruition  of  the  Christian 
ideal  of  human  brotherhood.  Southern  France  had  had 
an  earlier  maturity,  her  trade  had  reached  its  maximum, 
her  towns  and  churches  were  built.  The  North  developed 
with  great  rapidity;  her  quickly  growing  cities  were  for  the 
most  part  without  churches  of  sufficient  si/e  to  house  the 
people,  worship  taking  place  in  the  open  squares.  The 
lay  bishops,  with  their  own  share  of  local  pride,  stirred 
the  rivalry  of  the  cities  to  highest  pitch  and  called  for 
money  to  build  cathedrals.  It  came  in  a  vast  stream  from 
nobles  and  merchants  and  traders  and  peasants. 


PREPARATION    FOR    THE    GOTHIC 

The  monastic  school  was  not  consulted.  The  growing 
civic  and  national  pride  required  that  the  money  and 
material  should  be  given  freely,  and  not,  as  in  the  old  days 
of  the  Romanesque  period,  through  the  sales  of  relics  and 
indulgences.  The  architects  and  craftsmen  received  the 
orders  from  the  lay  bishops. 

It  was  Norman  blood  with  local  pride  and  a  desire  to 
break  away  from  concrete  expressions  of  the  old  tradition 
of  vassalage  that  inspired  the  order  to  build  greater  build- 
ings of  more  magnificence  than  ever  before.  It  embodies 

O  O 

a  revolt  that  reveals  a  sort  of  ideal  socialism  by  the  peo- 
ple for  the  people. 

The  architects  and  craftsmen  were  even  more  Norman 
than  the  rest  in  their  boldness  and  originality.  Throwing 
monastic  traditions  aside,  they  set  themselves  with  in- 
finite delight  to  the  task  of  finding  a  way  to  do  the  un- 
precedented thing.  They  found  the  way,  and  in  a  very 
ecstasy  of  inspired  daring  climbed  to  undreamed  heights 
of  greatness  and  magnificence.  All  architectural  styles 
are  evolutional,  but  these  men  came  the  nearest  to  abso- 
lute creation  that  man  has  reached  in  the  art.  The 
Romans,  in  derision,  called  their  work  Gothic,  meaning 
that  it  was  a  product  of  Northern  barbarism.  The  name 
remains,  but  it  has  taken  to  itself  a  significance  of  a  far 
different  sort.  It  seems  now  one  of  the  most  admirably 
expressive  words  in  our  language. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


THE    GOTHIC 

HE  very  basis  of  Gothic  architecture,  and  its 
development,  is  the  arch,  and  we  must  pause 
here  at- the  beginning  of  a  study  of  the  arch 
to  say  something  of  the  style  in  its  essence. 
When  the  huilders  of  the  thirteenth  century 
received  orders  for  churches  more  than  twice 
the  size  of  any  that  had  ever  before  been 


built,  their  chief  difficulties  were  mechanical,  as  may  be 
imagined  and  will  be  shown.  They  therefore  made  con- 
struction of  first  importance,  and  decorative  detail  subser- 
vient to  it.  The  result  is  a  true  art  expression,  for  there 
is  not  a  piece,  not  a  detail,  not  a  single  stone  or  cut  that 
has  not  a  definite  constructional  value. 

Its  beauties  are  not  applied,  they  are  inherent;  and 
they  are  great  beauties  because  they  express  directly  and 
vividly  the  temperament  of  the  builders,  fearless  of  risk 
or  of  traditions,  nervous,  exalted  by  the  glory  of  their  task, 
glorified,  almost  excited,  discoverers  of  an  untried  means 
of  expression. 

Thus,  as  we  have  said,  Gothic  architecture  rests  both 
literally  and  figuratively  on  the  arch.  In  the  old  Roman 
basilicas  there  was  no  arch,  for  the  roofs  were  of  wood,  and 
the  beam,  or  roof-truss,  falling  vertically  on  the  walls,  they 


THE    GOTHIC 


required  no  especial  strength.  When  stone  roofs  were 
substituted  in  the  Romanesque  churches  because  of  the 
danger  of  fires  and  the  certainty  of  decay,  the  builders 
naturally  used  the  round  arch,  which  had  already  de- 
veloped among  the  Romans. 

Now  arches  of  stone  have  a  curious  characteristic  com- 
mon to  them  all.  The  weight  of  stone  in  the  crown  or 
upper  part  of  the  arch  does  not  bear  down  vertically  on 
its  supports,  but  pushes  outward  in  its  tendency  to  flatten. 
This  any  arch  would  surely  do  if  not  prevented  by  side 
pressure.  This  direction  of  gravital  force  in  the  arch  is 
a  combination  of  vertical  and  horizontal  pressure,  and 
the  resolution  of  these  two  into  a  single  force  (a  problem 
familiar  in  physical  science)  gives  us  the  "line  of  thrust." 
This  line  is  a  parabolic  curve  which  sweeps  outward  from 


; 

\ 

1 

\ 

i 

\ 

1 

u 

LINE  OF  THRUST 

;                      ^  

\ 

,\ 

K- 

1 

\ 

1 

I 

1 

LINE  OF  THRUST 


FIG.    52 — THE     ARCH     TWRUST 


A 


the  crown  of  the  arch  to  the  ground  on  either  side, 
study  of  Fig.  52  will  make  this  clear. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  in   using  an   arched   roof 
over  the   nave   of  the  Romanesque  churches    some  pro- 
10  133 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

vision  to  counter- balance  this  thrust,  or  "kick,"  must 
he  made  that  was  not  afforded  in  the  wooden  -  roofed 
churches.  So  we  rind  the  walls  greatly  thickened.  As 
the  width  of  these  arches  was  not  very  great  (not  often 
more  than  twenty  feet),  and  the  height  from  the  ground 
was  not  extreme,  this  sufficed,  though  it  meant  a  great 
waste  of  building  material.  Later  the  wall  was  thickened 
at  regular  intervals  in  the  form  of  flat  pilasters  separating 
the  building  into  bays. 

When  the  Gothic  architects  began  to  plan  naves  of  thir- 
ty and  forty  feet  in  width  and  of  great  height  they  found 
the  problem  vastly  complicated.  Obviously  it  was  im- 
possible to  build  solid  walls  of  sufficient  thickness  to  take 
up  the  thrust.  They  would  have  been  enormous.  So 
another  method  was  found.  The  loads  of  the  vaults,  or 
arched  roofs,  were  concentrated  at  these  points  which 
separate  the  building  into  bays  by  a  system  of  cross-vault- 
ing, which  not  only  ribbed  the  vault  of  the  nave  at  right 
angles,  but  as  well  by  the  diagonal,  created  from  the  in- 
tersection of  the  cross-vaults.  At  these  points  of  support 
sections  of  wall  w7ere  built  at  right  angles  to  the  wall  itself. 

These  walls,  or  buttresses,  were  constructed  in  the  form 
of  arches,  anchored  at  the  outer  edge  with  heavy  masonrv, 
growing  from  raw  utilitarianism  into  the  pinnacled  glori- 
fication of  assurance,  beflowered  and  besainted,  economical 
of  material,  but  necessary  as  the  bones  of  the  human  or- 
ganism are  necessary — an  external  rather  than  an  internal 
skeleton. 

You  can  readily  see  how,  as  the  nave,  with  its  vaulted 
and  ribbed  ceiling,  grew  in  height,  expressing,  as  it  did, 
the  aspiration  of  the  creator,  losing  itself  in  the  semi- 
obscurity  which  added  to  its  charm  and  gave  it  its  own 

134 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

peculiar  domination  over  sentiment  and  intellect,  so  the 
buttress  must  climb  to  support  its  ambition. 

As  it  climbs  it  opens  out  into  a  flying  arch  carrying 
safely  to  the  ground  the  loads  laid  upon  it  by  the  aspiring 
vaults  erected  to  Idealism  (Fig.  53). 

But  even  this  creation  of  the  buttress  and  its  subsequent 
development  did  not  satisfy  the  ambitions  of  these  irre- 
pressible artists.  They  must  go  higher,  must  build  bigger 
still.  Also  their  churches  must  look  higher,  must  seem  to 
reach  upward  to  the  infinite  in  an  overwhelming  passion 
of  aspiration.  They  restlessly  sought  still  finer  means  of 
expression. 

Now  the  round  arch  is  the  flattest  practicable  arch  for  a 
roof,  and  it  has  the  most  extended  line  of  thrust  of  any  in 
use.  The  round-arched  roof,  therefore,  requires  the 
greatest  relative  width  of  base,  so  that,  with  all  possible 
ingenuity  of  buttress  construction,  it  was  possible  to  get 
only  a  moderate  proportionate  height.  If  the  relative 
height  of  the  arch  is  increased,  however,  so  that  it  becomes 
pointed  at  the  crown  and  more  steeply  sloping  at  the  sides, 
it  is  obvious  that  the  outward  kick  will  be  less  and  the  line 
of  thrust  will  be  more  nearly  vertical.  This  means  that 
the  builder  will  be  able  to  go  higher  and  shorten  his 
buttresses  at  the  same  time,  which  was  exactly  what  the 
Gothic  builder  wanted  to  do.  He  therefore  used  the 
pointed  arch  exclusively,  so  that  it  became  identified  with 
the  style,  and  its  use  colored  every  detail,  giving  the 
Gothic  a  large  share  of  its  peculiar  and  admirable  indi- 
viduality. 

The  Gothic  architects  did  not  discover  or  create  the 
pointed  arch,  however,  and  in  connection  with  this  there  is 
a  point  I  want  especially  to  make.  Antiquarians  are  over- 


FIG.   54 — TENEMENT    IN    MORLAIX,  FRANCE.      BUILT   ON 
THE    RUINS    OF     NORMAN    WORK 


H  C)  \V    T  O    K  N  0  \\     A  R  C  1 1  1  T  E  C  T  U  R  E 

fond  of  inventing  theories  or  preserving  legends  concern- 
ing the  origin  of  such  basic  things  as  the  pointed  arch.  It 
is  a  favorite  theory,  for  example,  that  the  pointed  arch 
was  suggested  by  the  crossing  of  interlaced  round  arches 
used  by  Diocletian  in  Spoleto  and  by  the  Normans.  It 
would  be  as  sensible  to  try  to  discover  the  inventor  of  roofs. 
Men  built  arches  in  comparatively  early  times,  and  it  is 
inconceivable  that  the  first  stone  arch  could  have  been  con- 
structed at  all  without  its  builder  having  thought  of  and 
actually  shaped  all  imaginable  kinds.  The  pointed  arch 
is  seen  long  before  Gothic  times,  though  it  was  seldom 
used,  and  it  became  a  characteristic  of  the  Gothic  because 
it  served  the  double  purpose  of  solving  constructional 
problems,  and  helping  to  express  the  ideas  and  senti- 
ments of  the  time  and  the  people. 

It  is  our  custom  to  speak  of  Gothic  as  church  architect- 
ure, and  many  people  believe,  I  find,  that  it  was  used  only 
for  churches  and  created  for  that  purpose.  True,  it  was 
in  the  building  of  the  great  cathedrals  of  northern  France 
that  the  style  was  evolved  and  reached  its  apogee,  but 
this  was  a  Gothic  period  in  the  fullest  sense.  Not  only 
were  all  the  buildings  Gothic  in  style,  but  dress  and 
utensils  were  influenced  by  it,  and  the  thought  and  temper 
of  the  times  colored  it  and  were  colored  by  it.  We  have 
come  to  identify  the  style  with  the  churches  because  they 
were  without  doubt  the  supremest  expression  of  it,  and 
because  they  alone  have  withstood  the  onslaughts  of  time 
and  change.  The  churches  stood  in  the  middle  of  the 
cities,  towering  above  the  surrounding  buildings  much  as 
a  modern  great  sky-scraper  would  in  a  country  town. 
After  gunpowder,  that  destroyer  of  chivalry,  was  intro- 
duced from  the  East,  not  only  was  the  personal  combat 

138 


THE    GOTHIC 


between  chivalrous  mail- 
clad  warriors  abandoned, 
but  architecture  itself  was 
affected. 

The  splay  or  deep  bevel 
on  the  jambs  of  windows, 
the  crennellated  or  in- 
dented parapet,  the  pro- 
jecting balconies  support- 
ed on  corbels  with  opening 
between  the  corbels,  dis- 
appeared as  necessities  — 
as  the  long  bow  and  spear 
were  no  longer  of  service, 
and  the  coat  of  mail  of- 
fered no  defence  against 
this  new  implement  of 
war. 

Towns  were  taken  in 
war  and  sacked,  the  walls 
and  buildings  often  razed, 
but  the  church,  represent- 
ing a  power  which  the 
conqueror  recognized  as 
inviolate,  was  most  fre- 
quently used  as  a  sanctu- 
ary, and  was  not  often  destroyed.  It  had  frequently  to 
be  defended,  however,  and  these  utilitarian  motifs  or  de- 
tails were  of  service  in  giving  wider  range  to  bowmen  and 
in  protecting  them  from  the  slings  and  bolts  of  the  enemy. 
They  became  more  or  less  useless  as  a  means  of  defence,  and 
remained  for  us  decorative  forms  but  distinctively  Gothic. 

139 


FIG.  55 — CARVED  CORNER-POST  AT 

SENS,  FRANCE 

Domestic  Gothic,  showing  early 
Renaissance  influence 


HOW   TO    KNOW   ARCHITECTURE 

There  is  still  some  domestic  Gothic  work  in  the  old 
cities  of  France  remaining  to  us,  but  modern  progress  and 
the  necessities  of  war  destroyed  most  of  the  vast  amount 
that  once  existed  (Figs.  54,  55,  56). 

For  the  purpose  of  study  we  may  best  examine  only  the 
churches.  They  alone  would  afford  material  for  volumes 
if  we  would  know  their  mysteries  intimately  and  well, 
but  we  must  take  time  only  to  understand  a  few  of  the 
fundamental  reasons  for  their  greajtness  and  visit  one  or 
perhaps  two  of  the  famous  examples.  Of  these  there  are 
about  six  in  northern  France,  all  supreme  examples:  Notre 
Dame,  at  Paris  (1,163  to  I2I4);  Chartres  (1194  to  1260); 
St.  Oueruat  Rouen  (1313  to  1339);  Rheims  (1212  to  1241), 
and  Amiens  (1220  to  1288)  (Figs.  57  [Frontispiece],  58). 

But  first  let  us  examine  those  characteristics  which 
were  retained  from  earlier  forms,  and  had,  in  fact,  become 
laws  in  church  building.  In  the  original  church  or  basil- 
ica, we  have  primarily  a  central  aisle,  which  was  called  a 
nave  because  the  wooden  roof  with  its  cross-beams  sug- 

O 

gested  an  inverted  ship  of  that  time.  The  Latin  for  ship 
is  navis  (from  which  we  derive  the  word  naval),  and  the 
churchmen  called  the  wooden  roof  the  ship  of  St.  Peter. 
At  the  end  of  the  nave  is  the  apse — "  absis,  a  round  arch, 
a  vault  or  a  wheel  "  — as  the  apse  is  circular  in  form.  The 
apse  invariably  pointed  to  the  east,  the  celestial  paradise 
having  been  located  in  that  direction  by  the  ancients. 
On  the  westerly  end  of  the  nave  and  serving  as  a  porch 
was  the  narthex,  or  place  of  the  penitents.  This  was 
also  one  of  the  four  sides  of  a  public  square  called  the 
atrium  or  parvis,  a  corruption  of  the  word  paradise.  The 
significance  is  apparently  that  this  was  a  sort  of  earthly- 
paradise,  or  intermediate  step  to  the  celestial  paradise 

140 


FIG.    56  —  DORMER    AT    USIEUX,    FRANCE,    SHOWING     TRANSITION 
FROM    FIFTEENTH-CENTURY    GOTHIC 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

which  might  be  attained  within  the  church.  In  Roman 
times  this  square  was  arcaded  on  all  four  sides  and  had 
a  fountain  in  the  centre,  where  it  was  the  custom  for  the 
faithful  to  wash  before  entering  the  church.  The  sur- 
vival of  this  is  the  basin  of  holy  water  that  stands  within 
the  door  of  every  Roman  Catholic  church. 

The  parvis,  like  the  open  court  of  the  East,  was  used  as 
a  gathering-place  for  merchants,  beggars,  and  penitents, 
and  for  the  reading  to  the  public  of  kingly  or  ecclesiastical 
decrees.  It  was  also  used  as  a  place  of  burial.  Most,  if 
not  all,  of  the  Gothic  cathedrals  and  smaller  churches 
have  an  open  square  at  the  westerly  end  without  the 
arcades,  but  frequently  with  a  fountain. 

On  either  side  of  the  nave  were  the  aisles,  separated 
from  it  by  columns  (Fig.  59).  The  right  aisle  was  re- 
served for  women  and  the  left  exclusively  for  men.  Later 
came  galleries,  now  called  collectively  the  tntonum  from 
the  three  divisions  by  columns  in  each  bay,  built  over  the 
aisles  and  opening  into  the  nave  with  arches  and  balus- 
trades. The  nave  was  carried  above  the  roof  of  the 
galleries,  so  as  to  give  a  clear,  or  "clere,"  story  where  light 
and  air  could  be  admitted.  The  vaults  of  the  nave  and 
aisles  were  divided  into  squares  called  bays,  and  these  bays 
were  separated  by  ribbed  and  molded  arches,  serving  as 
binders  and  ties  in  the  construction  of  the  vault.  In  the 
Gothic,  with  its  nervous,  pointed  arches,  the  bays  were 
cross-vaulted,  with  ribs  crossing  diagonally  from  the  cap 
of  the  supporting  piers,  so  as  to  accentuate  the  idea  of 
full  support  by  the  piers  or  grouped  columns. 

All  of  these  main  characteristics  were  retained  in  the 
Gothic,  and  developed.  One  interesting  new  change  that 
was  made  possible  by  the  buttresses,  for  instance,  was  the 

142 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

introduction  of  great  windows.  The  load  of  the  roof  being 
distributed  to  the  buttresses  by  the  arching  and  groining, 
the  intermediate  walls  were  no  longer  required  for  sup- 
port, and  were  cut  into  largely. 

The  front — to  the  west — of  the  Gothic  churches  is  di- 
vided vertically  into  three  equal  parts.  In  the  centre, 
with  its  inevitable  "rose"  window,  is  the  pediment,  or 
pointed  gable,  marking  the  height  of  the  nave,  while  each 
of  the  outside  divisions  rises  into  spires  and  towers,  but- 
tresses, and  galleries  ad  libitum.  The  three  divisions  are 
frequently  "married"  by  galleries  crossing  the  entire 
facade.  The  great  central  entrance  was  used  for  pro- 
cessions and  the  coming  and  going  of  nobility,  while  the 
lesser  side  doors  were  for  the  men  and  women  of  the 
commons,  a  door  for  each. 

The  frieze,  or  lintel,  of  the  main  doors  is  usually  em- 
bellished with  apostles  carefully  sculptured  in  niches,  and 
with  graphic  illustrations  of  Hell  and  Heaven.  It  is  joy- 
ful to  contemplate  the  delight  of  the  satirical  Freemason 
sculptors  in  immortalizing  their  enemies  and  their  sweet- 
hearts in  their  work.  A  study  of  the  faces  of  the  church 
angels  leaves  little  doubt  that  they  were  not  always  quite 
angels  in  the  flesh,  and  a  certainty  that  they  existed  in 
the  flesh. 

The  sides  of  the  doors  are  recessed  and  panelled  and 
statued  with  patriarchs,  row  on  row.  The  old  floral 
decoration  of  the  Romanesque  gave  way  almost  entirely 
to  the  human  figure,  and  the  art  and  independence  of 
the  sculptor  advanced  accordingly. 

The  north  and  south  ends  of  the  transepts  are  rose- 
windowed  and  gabled,  and  supplied  \vith  porches  and 
arched  entrances.  The  sides  of  the  church  are  broken 

144 


FIG.    59 — INTERIOR    OF    CATHEDRAL    AT    ROUEN 


HOW  TO  KNOW  ARCH  IT  EC  TURK 

up  with  their  intricate  multiplicity  of  flying  buttresses, 
with  their  many  arches  and  pinnacles,  keen,  nervous  sup- 
porters of  the  stone-vaulted  roof,  each  supremely  fitted 
to  its  work,  without  a  superfluous  molding,  hut  with  every 
part  petted  and  caressed  into  exquisite  beauty.  There 
is  a  quality  almost  tender  in  these  great,  stern  stone  sup- 
ports, so  completely  utilitarian  in  their  reason  for  being. 
The  cathedrals  of  Rheims,  Amiens,  Chartres,  Paris,  and 
Rouen  are,  as  I  have  said,  considered  by  scholars  the  five 
great  examples  of  thirteenth-century  Gothic.  Of  these  I 
would  select  Rheims  and  Amiens  as  supreme.  It  is  dif- 
ficult to  give  any  adequate  idea  of  the  vastness  and  magnifi- 
cence of  these  towering  masterpieces.  To  the  oldest  and 
most  travelled  of  students  they  remain  a  fresh  revelation 
of  amazing  grandeur,  however  often  visited.  Imagine 
Rheims  or  Amiens,  looming  grandly  far  above  all  sur- 
rounding buildings,  with  their  length  of  four  hundred  and 
fifty  to  five  hundred  feet  from  entrance  to  altar,  their  naves 
forty  feet  wide  and  unguessable  height  (actually  about 
one  hundred  and  forty  feet),  lined  with  massive  grouped 
columns  that  rise  from  the  ground  and  lose  themselves  in 
the  wonderfully  considered  supporting  ribs  that  carry  the 
eye  to  the  very  apex  of  the  vaulting.  Between  the  piers 
the  light  enters  through  the  brilliant  and  virile  glasswork 
which  has  never  been  equalled  since  that  period  for 
unfading  richness.  Around  the  altar  the  warm,  vibrant 
shadows  rest  like  a  benediction.  The  floor  is  filled  with 
the  little  square-backed  chairs  of  the  worshippers,  the  drone 
of  whose  voices,  low  in  prayer,  forms  an  effective  diapason 
accompaniment  to  the  thin,  high,  almost  metallic  chant  of 
the  priest,  a  harmony  in  which  the  high  lights  of  the  swing- 
ing censers  seem  somehow  to  have  a  part. 

146 


THE    GOTHIC 

All  these  great  cathedrals  were,  of  course,  many  years  in 
building,  and  in  consequence  show  local  variations  of 
style  that,  while  harmonious,  remove  them  just  so  far 
from  perfection.  Rheims,  for  example,  was  begun  in 
12 1 2,  and  not  completed  for  two  centuries.  In  that  time 
there  had  been  marked  evolution  in  Gothic  building  ideas, 
and  the  beautiful  buildings  show  it  plainly.  There  is, 
however,  one  completely  consistent  and  practically  per- 
fect example  of  Gothic,  the  beautiful  Ste.  Chapelle  in 
Paris,  which  was  begun  and  completed  within  rive  years. 

This  superb  little  church  was  finished  in  1247,  an<^ 
though  a  few  changes  were  made  by  later  kings,  notably 
the  little  spire,  or  fleche,  added  by  Charles  VII.,  it  remains 
practically  as  Pierre  de  Montereau  built  it,  in  honor  of 
Saint  Louis  (Fig.  60). 

These  chapels  are  not  common  nor  of  great  size.  Ste. 
Chapelle  is  about  one  hundred  and  ten  feet  long,  as  high 
as  long,  and  not  more  than  thirty  feet  wide.  There  are 
usually  two  chapels,  the  lower  one  being  the  repository 
for  some  saint's  bones.  In  this  case  the  relics — among 
them  the  Crown  of  Thorns  and  a  piece  of  the  True  Cross, 
collected  by  Louis  IX. — were  placed  in  the  upper  chapel, 
which  was  on  a  level  with  the  palace  floor  tor  the  con- 
venience of  the  court.  The  lower  chapel  was  given  for 
the  use  of  the  public  and  for  the  burial  of  church  officials. 

Thus  the  architecture  and  decoration  of  the  upper 
chapel  was  of  special  magnificence.  The  windows  are 
among  the  most  gorgeously  beautiful  in  existence,  the 
church  full  of  rich  color  and  gilding.  The  entire  side 
walls  are  a  series  of  large  windows  the  full  width  of  the 
spaces  between  the  piers,  giving  an  effect  of  much  delicacy - 

Here,  then,  is  the  climax  of  Gothic  expression,  which  is 

H7 


FIG.    60 — SAINTK    CHAl'ELLK,    PARIS    (GOTHIC) 


THE    GOTHIC 

also  the  climax  of  architectural  expression — the  most  per- 
fect record  of  a  temple  to  an  ideal  that  we  have.  You  re- 
member that  Saint  Louis  died  of  the  plague  in  Africa  while 
leading  a  crusade  against  the  infidel.  The  spirit  that  un- 
falteringly undertook  this  wearisome  march  to  the  Holy 
Sepulchre,  daring  all  for  the  ideal,  is  the  spirit  of  Sainte 
Chapelle. 

11 


CHAPTER  IX 


FLAM  HOY A NT    GOTHIC 


|UCH  a  spirit  as  fired  the  church  builders  of 
the  thirteenth  century  could  not  burn  with 
that  unparalleled  glory  for  long — after  ecstasy 
comes  reaction.  Moreover,  marked  changes 
were  taking  place  in  the  social  fabric,  changes 
in  trade,  in  science,  and  in  idealism,  that 
must  inevitably  record  themselves  in  contem- 
porary architecture. 

Three  important  and  disturbing  paths  of  discovery  were 
opened  in  this  era,  each,  curiously  enough,  bv  way  of  a 
different  nation.  By  way  of  Spain  came  a  great  influx  of 
new  gold  to  Europe  from  the  New  World,  and  old  mone- 
tary standards  were  so  disturbed  thereby  as  to  affect  se- 
riously the  entire  commerce  of  the  continent.  In  France 
a  revolt  against  the  philosophical  and  scientific  traditions 
that  ecclesiastical  power  had  congealed  and  that  men  were 
outgrowing  created  a  hunger  for  new  intellectual  pabulum 
that  started  discoveries  in  the  arts  and  literature  of  the 
Last.  In  Germany  a  revolt  against  the  ritualism  of  the 
much  overloaded  politico-religious  church  institution  of 
the  time  precipitated  the  rediscovery  of  the  simplicity  and 
directness  of  doctrine  of  the  early  fathers. 

1  he  transitional   period   preceding    a    readjustment   of 

150 


FLAMBOYANT   GOTHIC 

standards  on  the  basis  of  the  new  discoveries  was  neces- 
sarily one  of  groping  and  confusion  in  every  department 
of  life.  It  was  inevitable  that  there  should  be  a  slackening 
of  effort,  a  loosening  of  the  fabric.  The  people  felt  blinded 
and  uncertain  whichever  way  they  might  turn.  All  the 
old  values  were  destroyed  or  questioned.  The  business 
depression,  discussed  with  fear  in  home  and  shop,  on  the 
streets  and  in  the  markets,  was  an  unaccountable  terror 
presaging  they  knew  not  what.  Rumors  of  strange  dis- 
coveries in  the  arts  and  sciences,  of  old  manuscripts  and 
old  laws  long  buried  in  the  mysterious  East,  added  con- 
fusion in  the  intellectual  field.  This  condition  was  in- 
tensified by  the  cry  for  help  from  the  Greek  Church,  the 
embassies  of  bishops  and  learned  men  from  Constantinople, 
and  the  councils  of  the  Roman  Church  in  Italy  held  to 
consider  the  wisdom  of  a  war  against  the  invading  Turks 
in  the  East.  The  authority  of  the  Church,  not  only  in 
temporal  but  in  spiritual  matters,  was  beginning  to  be  ac- 
cepted only  tentatively  and  was  soon  to  be  largely  rejected 
altogether,  so  that  men  knew  not  which  way  to  turn  for 
guidance  or  salvation. 

An  interesting  effect,  and  one  not  without  merit,  of  this 
state  of  things  was  the  eradication  of  the  intense  fear  of  con- 
sequences in  the  next  world.  The  terror  of  hell  had  been 
preached  until  it  had  become  a  bugbear,  for  the  Church 
had  become  weak  in  its  inspiration  and  sought  to  sub- 
stitute fear  as  a  controlling  force.  But  becoming  alarmed 
about  this  time  at  the  growing  atheism  and  the  terrible 
toll  of  crime  accruing,  the  heads  of  the  Church  tried  to 
limit  murder,  arson,  and  other  horrors  to  certain  days 
in  the  week.  It  was  too  late,  however.  The  Church  had 
cried  "Boo!"  until  few  paid  much  attention,  and  finally 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

the  entire  country  rose  in  its  new-found  intellectual  might 
and  practically  erased  Hell  from  the  map — then  more  or 
less  calmly  proceeded  to  raise  it  again  and  again  on  their 
own  accounts. 

The  new  order  of  things  had  its  relative  influence  on 
architecture,  which,  you  remember,  was,  when  we  left  it, 
Gothic  at  its  noblest. 

As  we  have  seen  in  earlier  times,  among  the  Greeks, 
the  Romans,  and  the  Norman  builders  of  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries,  religion  was  the  ideal  to  which  science 
had  built.  Now,  in  these  later  times  in  Europe,  the  cord 
of  idealism  discloses  a  new  and  more  highly  colored 
strand,  the  true  chivalry  of  the  gentlemen  of  the  order  of 
knighthood.  The  chief  purpose  of  the  knightly  orders 
had  been  the  redemption  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  from  the 
control  of  the  infidel.  With  this  went  the  protection  of 
the  Christian  ideal,  the  succoring  of  those  in  distress,  and 
the  upholding  of  the  power  of  the  overlord,  to  whom  the 
knights  owed  faithful  allegiance. 

There  has  never  been  a  time  in  the  history  of  the  world 
when  personal  honor  and  success  in  personal  achievement 
were  placed  on  so  high  a  pedestal.  To  such  a  degree  had 
this  spirit  grown  that  often  the  religious  idea  of  knight- 
hood became  secondary.  "For  God  and  the  King!"  had 
been  the  battle-cry  of  the  knights,  but  later  it  might  justly 
have  been  rendered  "For  the  King  and  God,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  Ladies!"  Nevertheless,  the  triple  inspira- 
tion led  men  individually  and  collectively  to  the  highest 
plane  of  one  sort  of  achievement — to  glory  in  war  and 
the  highest  development  of  personal  honor. 

Here  again  is  shown  an  apt  parallel  in  the  creations 
science  raises  to  an  ideal.  Because  of  the  glorification  of 


FLAMBOYANT    GOTHIC 

the  individual  in  personal  combat  on  the  highest  level  of 
feudal  formalism,  the  harness  and  accoutrements  of  the 
knights  of  necessity  represented  the  dignity  of  the  wearers, 
and  science  created  such  works  of  art  in  the  war  harness 
of  the  knights,  in  the  decoration  and  design  of  the  armor 
originally  worn  for  protection  against  the  bows  and  arrows 
of  the  enemy,  that  we  in  these  modern  times  lose  our- 
selves in  admiration  and  wonder.  These  instruments,  the 
expressions  by  science  of  this  ideal,  now  became  useless 
against  the  strange  black  powder  introduced  from  the  East, 
but  were  retained  as  the  garments  of  knightly  ritualism. 
In  the  formal  jousts  or  ceremonies  before  the  king  and 
ladies  of  the  court,  these  gallant  gentlemen  still  sought 
the  smiles  of  fair  women,  while  encased  in  these  honor- 
able garments,  and  on  parade.  The  smiles  of  the  ladies 
grew  in  importance.  A  glove,  a  rose,  a  handkerchief 
had  been  in  the  heyday  of  knighthood  the  inspiration  for 
daring  deeds  on  the  fields  of  battle,  but,  while  the  intro- 
duction of  gunpowder  had  reduced  the  usefulness  of  the 
knightly  coat  of  mail,  its  glories  had  correspondingly  in- 
creased in  the  eyes  of  the  charming  and  witty  ladies  of 
the  court.  We  need  not  wonder  that  a  larger  and  larger 
body  of  knights  entered  the  lists  in  this  fascinating  game 
of  romance.  We  can  only  envy  them.  Here  again  ar- 
chitecture tells  the  story  of  the  time  in  its  expression  of 
the  gallantry  of  the  knights  and  the  charm  of  their  fair 
ladies,  and  it  tells  it  without  equivocation,  very  gracefully 
and  aptly. 

Froissart,  in  his  chronicles,  calls  it  the  "Age  of  Love," 
a  very  natural  reaction  from  the  burning  intensity  of  the 
age  of  religious  chivalry.  With  the  appearance  of 
religious  carelessness  we  find  a  certain  decline  of  the 


high  ideal  from  the  honor  of  chivalry  to  the  license  of 
chivalry  and  the  parallel  decadence  of  the  monuments  to 
the  dominant  ideal  as  it  became  less  spiritual.  But  that 
the  ideal  still  had  power  to  move  men  to  create  beautiful 
things,  we  have  ample  proof. 

The  churches  were  still  Gothic,  but  the  style  was  trans- 
formed by  the  changed  ideal  into  one  quite  different  from 
that  of  the  austerely  aspiring  cathedrals.  It  was  sensu- 
ous, flamboyant,  studiously  careless,  joyfully  flippant,  but 
still  very  beautiful,  so  that  you  must  love  it.  The  term 
flamboyant  (flaming)  has  been  retained  as  most  expressive 
of  the  style,  and  it  fits  admirably.  (Fig.  61.) 

The  influence  which  this  new  translation  of  idealism 
had  on  the  treatment  of  the  churches  can  be  understood 
more  clearly  by  a  reference  to  one  of  the  most  beautiful  ex- 
amples in  Europe.  In  St.  Maclou,  at  Rouen  (Fig.  62), 
with  its  wonderful  perforated  tracery,  its  decorative  elabo- 
ration of  the  structural  basis  of  the  supporting  buttress, 
and  the  feminine  delicacy  of  the  treatment  of  every  de- 
tail, we  can  see  plainly  the  direction  in  which  the  creative 
influence  is  travelling.  And  its  later  quick  transition  into 
the  classic  was  to  color  further  the  remaining  austerity  of 
the  Gothic  rigid  line,  as  we  shall  see,  in  precisely  the  same 
way.  The  change  in  idealism  which  was  taking  place,  from 
the  purely  religious  of  the  thirteenth  century  to  the  clear- 
sighted intellectuality  of  the  sixteenth  in  passing  through 
the  medium  of  this  period  of  charm  and  cleverness, 
p-athered  color  for  the  benefit  of  the  intellectual  Renais- 

o 

sance  period — and  for  our  own. 

Architecture  has  another  expression  by  which  it  tells 
us  what  manner  of  people  these  fifteenth-century  gallants 
were,  for  while  a  few  churches  and  cathedrals  were  erected, 


vie,.  62 — ST.  MACLOU  (ROUEN) 


FLAMBOYANT    GOTHIC 

the  efforts  of  the  time  were  directed  largely  toward  the 
evolution  of  the  isolated  mansion  or  chateau  and  of  courts 
of  justice. 

The  seigniorial  residence  or  fortified  palace  of  the  over- 
lord is  found  throughout  France  since  the  time  of  the 
Gallic  invasion,  surrounded  by  the  village  of  the  retainers, 
and  primarily  considered  as  a  fortress.  Now,  as  the  kings 
grew  in  power  and  the  smaller  lords  correspondingly  de- 
creased in  power,  the  kings  wisely  forbade  the  building 
of  these  forts,  which,  in  case  of  rebellion,  could  be  used 
against  their  authority.  The  lords  turned  to  the  building 
of  beautiful  residences  after  the  modern  fashion,  with 
license  from  the  king  and  for  the  ladies. 

It  is  true  that  the  builders  of  these  chateaus  were  so 
frequently  engrossed  in  jousts  with  Cupid  that  they 
neglected  to  pay  their  bills  for  the  creations  of  the  archi- 
tects, but  they  have  long  since  paid  whatever  was  to  pay, 
and  we  have  as  heritage  the  remarkable  result  of  their 
romantic  inclinations,  their  undoubted  good  taste,  and 
that  splendid  fearlessness  that  remains  from  their  Nor- 
man-blooded, cathedral-building  fathers.  The  results  in 
buildings  of  this  Age  of  Love  are  as  truthful  and  as  im- 
portant in  architectural  progress  as  are  the  parent  cathe- 
drals, and  so  you  will  see  it  if  you  remember  that  we  are 
concerned  with  the  development  of  style  and  not  with 
questions  of  morals. 

Our  most  vivid  picture  of  the  social  life  of  this  time,  then, 
is  of  the  foppish  and  extravagant  nobles  basking  in  the 
smiles  of  beautiful  women.  It  is  evident  that  the  ten- 
dency is  away  from  the  splendid  socialism  of  the  earlier 
Gothic  period.  The  style  of  architecture  was  merely 
melted  in  the  fires  of  human  passion,  and  became  a  more 

J57 


FIG.  63 — ST.  THOMAS'S  cm  KCH,  NI-W  YORK 


FLAMBOYANT    GOTHIC 

lavish,  more  luxurious  and  flowery  thing,  albeit  still  a 
beautiful  one,  for  there  was  not  wanting  a  nobility  even 
in  this  decaying  chivalry. 

The  arch  of  the  fifteenth  century  is  no  longer  the  simple, 
upward,  aspiring  curve  of  the  churches.  It  has  become 
fleshly  double-curved,  suggesting  the  double  phase  of  the 
social  life.  First  it  was  deeply  concave,  then,  halfway  up, 
it  reversed  itself  and  became  convex,  ending  in  a  sharp 
point  with  the  moldings  which  project  and  thereby  serve 
as  protection,  continuing  and  culminating  in  an  orna- 
mented and  foliated  finial.  Surely  the  bare  line  of  this 
new  arch  in  contrast  with  the  old,  alone  tells  vividly  the 
story  of  this  new  ideal,  as  does  also  a  change  from  the  use 
of  the  equilateral  triangle  to  the  pentagon  and  the  isosceles 
or  unequal  triangle  in  the  legal  construction  of  the  com- 
position. 

The  desire  for  ornament  was  carried  to  such  a  point  that 
we  lose  the  naked  and  vigorous  supporting  lines  of  the 
piers  and  buttresses,  while  constructural  "freaking"  was 
attempted  with  these  buttresses  and  the  points  of  support. 
Solid  walls  and  balustrades  are  perforated  and  panelled 
with  delicate  lace-like  quatrefoils,  trefoils,  and  interlaced 
and  double  curves.  The  steeply  pointed  pediment  or 
gable  which  crowns  the  deeply  arched  entrances  is  per- 
forated and  treated  with  geometrical  interlacing  forms. 
The  strongly  cut  moldings  of  the  arches  are  filled  with 
extravagant  translations  of  the  flower  forms  used  in  the 
earlier  type.  It  is  not  idealism  beyond  control  but  rather 
one  of  extravagant  conceit  and  assurance,  always,  how- 
ever, with  the  restraint  which  inherited  good  taste  demands. 

It  is  exceedingly  interesting  that  the  flamboyant  has  its 
counterpart  in  this  country  and  in  our  time,  our  ideal  in 

159 


1-U;.   64. — RESIDENCE   OK  W.  K.  VANDKRBII.T,  NKW  YORK.   (SIXTEENTH- 
CENTURY    GOTHIC) 


FLAMBOYANT   GOTHIC 

life  corresponding,  in  a  degree,  to  the  strange  fearlessness 
and  independence  of  the  French  nobility  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  We  can  see  here  plainly  the  equivalent  of  a 
chateau-building  period,  for  we  are  Latin  in  temperament, 
versatile,  and  in  the  direct  line  of  succession  for  world 
control  as  the  trade  pendulum  swings  westward — our  in- 
dustrial feudalism  has  given  us  the  equivalent  of  the 
Norman  fearlessness,  for  our  traditions  we  have  the  great 
public  and  private  collections  of  ancient  works  of  art — a 
poor  substitute,  but  'twill  do. 

But,  curiously  enough,  while  we  are  more  akin  to  the 
Northern  temperament,  we  do  not,  to  any  great  degree, 
indulge  ourselves  in  the  use  of  their  grammar  or  language, 
having  accepted  the  method  of  the  Renaissance,  or  the  re- 
vival of  the  early  classic.  Yet  there  are  a  few  isolated 
cases  where  the  use  of  Gothic  in  our  architecture  is  ex- 
tremely interesting.  If  the  architect's  temperament  is  in 
harmony  with  the  creators  and  inventors  of  the  Middle 
Ages  the  result  is  likely  to  be  worth  while,  otherwise  we 
must  have  an  academic  and  scholastic  creation,  a  mixing 
of  dry  bones  and  book  details,  or  parts,  which  is  in  no 
sense  evolutional. 

It  is  always  necessary  that  a  practitioner  should  be  an 
enthusiast,  but  in  the  case  of  the  Gothic  self-trained  man 
there  must  be  even  more  than  this.  An  analytical  mind 
may  create  good  Classic,  but  for  great  Gothic  work  an  en- 
thusiastic reverence  for  form  and  sentiment  is  necessary  in 
order  to  obtain  results  above  mediocrity. 

In  the  Cathedral  of  St.  John  the  Divine,  New  York  City, 
we  can  feel  the  book.  We  have,  therefore,  a  magnificent 
library  cathedral  with  Byzantine  and  fifteenth-century 
Gothic  on  the  shelves.  While  this  may  be  a  true  and 

161 


FIG.  65 — THE   LADY  CHAPEL,  ST.  PATRICK'S  CATHEDRAL,  NEW  YORK 


FLAMBOYANT    GOTHIC 

natural  expression  of  our  time,  it  is  unfortunate  that  it 
lacks  inspiration.  The  new  West  Point  is  an  example  of 
inspired  Gothic,  and  altogether  a  flowery  expression  which 
could  have  been  appreciated  by  the  Freemason  architects 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  Goodhue,  the  designer  of  the  new 
West  Point,  created  on  paper  an  imaginary  Gothic  city 
with  the  most  charming  inns  and  magnificent  cathedrals, 
which  is  lost  for  us  because  an  English  firm,  to  which  the 
plan  was  submitted,  declined  to  publish  on  the  ground 
that  "there  was  no  such  city  in  existence." 

St.  Thomas's,  on  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York  City  (Fig. 
63),  is  a  good  example  of  the  Gothic  of  the  French,  but  so 
buried  and  lost  in  the  brownstone  that  the  beauties  are  not 
appreciated. 

W.  K.  Vanderbilt's  home  on  Fifth  Avenue  (Fig.  64)  is 
a  chateau  flamboyant  with  a  suspicion  of  the  new  Italian 
ornament  in  its  parts,  whereas  the  Cornelius  Vanderbilt 
mansion  farther  up  the  Avenue  has  many  of  the  book 
details  but  little  of  the  essence  of  the  old. 

The  Lady  Chapel  of  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  on  Madi- 
son Avenue  (Fig.  65),  is  a  magnificent  example  of  the  best 
of  the  French,  and  was  evidently  inspired  by  the  Ste. 
Chapelle,  in  Paris,  while  the  cathedral  itself  is  colored 
somewhat  by  the  Teutonic  translation.  You  will  notice 
that  while  there  are  pinnacles  to  hold  the  buttresses, 
there  happen  to  be  no  buttresses,  as  the  groined  arch  of 
the  roof  is  plaster,  and,  therefore,  would  neither  need  nor 
support  the  weight  of  these  flying  braces.  With  a  Gothic 
essential  missing,  is  it  not  true  that  the  result  is  only  par- 
tial and  pedantic  and  not  in  any  sense  evolutional,  and  is, 
therefore,  a  true  expression  of  our  times  ?  There  is  a  door- 
way in  the  dry-goods  district  of  New  York  City  which  is 

'63 


FIG.  66 — DOOR  ON   I?  ROAD  WAY,  NKW  YORK 
(FIFTEENTH-CENTURY  GOTHIC) 


FLAMBOYANT    GOTHIC 

in  itself  a  charming  and  truthful  interpretation  of  the 
Age  of  Love  of  the  flamboyant  period.  The  double  lines 
in  the  arch  are  crowned  with  babies  in  lieu  of  flowers,  and 
it  has  a  freedom  of  line  which  marks  it  as  a  perfect  trans- 
lation of  the  period.  It  serves  its  purpose  as  a  doorway, 
but  tells  no  story  to  the  unseeing,  though  in  itself  a  little 
book  of  the  successors  of  Sir  Galahad  and  their  love- 
jousts  resting  on  a  shelf  with  account-books,  the  Talmud, 
and  the  Old  Testament. 

12 


INTELLECTUAL 

THE   THIRD    PERIOD 


CHAPTER  X 


THE   THIRD    GREAT   TRANSITION 
Renaissance 

F  you  have  had  the  patience  to  read  thus  far, 
you  can  now  see  in  the  mind's  eye  a  strange 
and  powerful  sort  of  human  tidal  wave  of 
trade  and  culture,  religious  awakening,  nation- 
al development  and  creative  production  rising 
in  the  Dardanelles  and  sweeping  northwest- 
ward over  Europe.  It  comes  to  an  apex  at 
Athens,  crosses  to  Rome,  then  swings  northward  through 
France,  culminating  in  the  majestic  upheaval  of  the 
French  Gothic.  After  that  the  decadence  begins,  while 
in  the  countries  left  behind  there  is  either  aridity  or  a 
comparatively  feeble  back-water.  Later  we  shall  find 
that  the  main  tide  crossed  the  Channel  to  England  with 
interesting  results,  though  with  reduced  vitality. 

For  the  present  we  must  continue  to  watch  the  progress 
of  Europe  for  signs  of  some  new  inspiration,  some  new 
force  that  will  give  the  needed  stimulus  to  creative  prog- 
ress. It  is  evident  that  in  the  florid  beauties  of  the  flam- 
boyant the  architects  of  the  period  have  well-nigh  ex- 
hausted their  creative  vitality  so  far  as  the  Gothic  style  is 
concerned.  The  changes  have  been  rung  until  there  was 
naught  but  vain  repetition,  and  what  there  was  of  novelty 

169 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

begins  to  show  weakness  of  purpose,  failing  imagination, 
and  uncertain  ideals.  A  new  inspiration  was  on  the  way. 
We  have  found  so  far  hut  two  broad  and  distinct  types  of 
buildings,  the  first  the  classic  with  its  horizontal  lines  and 
the  column  as  keynote,  and  the  second  the  Gothic,  the 
motif  of  which  is  the  vertical  line  and  pointed  arch.  The 
pure  classic  building  and  the  Gothic  church  are  the  most 
strongly  differentiated  of  finished  architectural  products, 
although  the  Gothic  was,  in  a  broad  sense,  an  evolution 
from  the  classic.  When,  therefore,  the  Gothic  inspira- 
tion was  exhausted  and  we  look  in  vain  for  those  virile 
human  conditions  that  alone  make  real  creation  possible, 
we  wonder  if  now  it  is  net  to  be  a  return  to  the  long-un- 
worked  mine  of  the  classic. 

If  France  at  this  time  had  not  gone  to  extremes  in  the 
enjoyment  of  her  emancipation,  and  the  new  intellectual 
ideal  had  been  vitally  constructive  and  under  the  inspira- 
tion of  a  great  leader  without  a  break  in  its  continuity, 
we  can  see  possibilities  of  the  Gothic  continuing  its  de- 
velopment into  realms  still  unimagined  and  remaining 
free  from  foreign  taint  for  centuries,  sufficient  unto  itself. 

But  this  did  not  happen.  On  the  contrary,  we  find 
evident  exhaustion  and  a  new  discovery — that  of  the 
beauties  of  the  classic.  WTiether  we  are  to  regard  this 
discovery  as  a  matter  of  chance,  or  as  a  Heaven-sent 
answer  to  a  crying  need,  is  of  little  importance.  It  was 
not,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  result  of  any  systematic  or 
deliberate  search  for  novelty. 

The  classic  buildings  of  the  Mediterranean  had  been 
standing  at  the  doors  of  France  through  the  centuries, 
and  it  had  not  occurred  to  France  to  copy  or  adopt  any 
part  of  them.  The  reason  is  apparent.  The  Greeks 

170 


FIG.    67— RICCARDI    PALACE,    FLORENCE    (ITALIAN    RENAISSANCE) 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

were  a  joyous  people,  beauty  -  loving  and  intellectual. 
They  showed  much  fondness  for  the  exquisite  forms  of 
plants,  the  subtleties  of  delicate  lines,  the  colors  of  nature. 
The  Grecian  decorations  are  full  of  fine  gradations  of 
line  and  subtle  color  harmonies,  and  the  sculpture  of  the 
period  shows  an  even  more  amazing  delicacy  of  feeling 
for  beauty.  The  Romans  also  had  the  pagan  inclination 
to  enjoy  material  existence,  though  they  were  of  coarser 
fibre  than  the  Greeks  and  showed  an  inclination  to  scepti- 
cism, while  our  Normans  and  Franks  were  more  inclined 
to  a  harsher  translation  of  idealism.  A  harsh  climate  and 
a  constant  fight  against  natural  conditions  are  not  likely 
to  create  a  gentle  idealism. 

It  is  plain  that  the  simple,  stern,  and  ascetic  early 
Christians,  drilled  as  they  were  in  abhorrence  of  any  color 
of  paganism,  should  both  hate  and  fear  the  pagan  tradi- 
tions of  classic  architecture.  In  this  age  of  intellectualism, 
however,  the  conditions  have  changed.  The  old  fears 
and  prejudices  have  gone,  and  all  the  dominant  character- 
istics of  the  old  Greeks  and  Romans  have  blossomed  forth 
in  the  new  French.  If  they  had  been  contemporary,  what 
an  interchange  of  laws,  ideas,  craftsmen,  and  works  of  art 
there  might  have  been.  But  the  architecture  of  the  earlier 
period  remains,  a  perfect  record  of  its  creators.  And  here, 
for  the  first  time  in  more  than  a  thousand  years,  was  a  peo- 
ple equipped  temperamentally  and  intellectually  to  appre- 
ciate it.  We  can  imagine  with  what  gusto  the  French 
builders  seized  on  the  new  inspiration,  finding  it  so  strange- 
ly fitted  to  their  needs. 

There  were  differences  of  condition,  however,  between 
the  Greece  of  the  pagan  period  and  the  Europe  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  some  of  these  differences  called 

172 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

for  great  ingenuity  of  adjustment.  Classic  architecture 
was  born,  for  example,  under  brilliantly  sunny  skies,  and 
was  transplanted  to  a  land  of  gray  skies  and  rain  and 
snow.  Tbe  life  and  language  of  the  South  is  gentle,  and 
the  language  of  the  moldings  and  the  parts  of  the  archi- 
tecture is  also  quiet  and  lined  in  gentle  curves.  The 
North,  in  translating  these  expressions,  changed  the 
curves  and  the  gentleness  of  line  in  the  details  and  smaller 
parts  to  conform  to  the  more  rigid  natural  condition  and  to 
their  more  strenuous  nature.  This  also  explains  why 
the  Latins  of  Italy  could  never  accept  the  Northern 
translation  of  the  Gothic  moldings  and  composition, 
which  were  not  at  all  in  harmony  with  the  gentleness  of 
the  Southern  climate.  There  was  a  directness  about  the 
Latin  and  Greek  classics  that  hardly  harmonized  with  the 
overripe  gallantry  and  lavishness  of  the  French  court. 
The  classic  found  more  congenial  if  not  more  eager  soil 
in  later  days,  but  though  marvels  of  beauty  have  been 
wrought  under  its  inspiration  it  is  perhaps  true  that  no 
final  adjustment  and  conclusion  have  been  arrived  at  to 
this  day. 

The  "Renaissance,"  or  rebirth  of  the  classic,  began, 
like  the  development  of  the  classic  itself,  in  the  Kast. 
The  Turks  were  storming  Constantinople,  and  the  men 
of  intellect,  students,  and  craftsmen  had  been  emigrating 
to  Italy  for  safety  and  for  greater  opportunities.  They 
passed  by  Athens,  then  controlled  by  the  Turks,  but  thev 
came  to  Rome  steeped  in  the  Greek  traditions  which  had 
spread  eastward  as  far  as  Constantinople  to  meet  there 
the  Western  tide  of  Orientalism. 

It  was  a  veritable  age  of  discovery.  The  capture  of 
Constantinople  by  the  Turks  and  the  consequent  closing 

174 


FIG.    69 — DUCAL    PALACE,    VENICE 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

of  the  Dardanelles  had,  you  remember,  sent  adventurous 
explorers  out  to  rind  new  routes  to  the  East.  The  dis- 
covery of  America  and  the  circumnavigation  of  Africa 
followed.  New  outlets  for  trade  and  new  sources  of 
wealth  were  being  found,  and  Europe  was  forced  to  face 
squarely  about  toward  the  West,  the  custom-houses  on  the 
eastern  borders  were  closed,  and  the  ports  of  entry  now 
faced  the  Atlantic. 

This  change  had  one  interesting  political  result.  The 
Eastern  Franks,  or  Germans,  were  occupied  for  a  long 
period  holding  the  Turks  and  the  wandering  tribes  of 
Mongolians  from  overrunning  Europe,  thereby  offering 
the  Western  Franks,  or  French,  comparative  relief  and  an 
uninterrupted  opportunity  to  develop  nationally  at  the  ex- 
pense of  her  own  national  growth. 

This  explains  somewhat  why  France  was  allowed  to  de- 
velop the  Gothic  and  then  the  new  type  without  serious 
interference  from  the  East.  And  then  Alexander  VI.,  the 
Borgia  pope,  calmly  apportioned  the  world  among  the  na- 
tions and  gave  to  Spain  all  the  ne\v  Western  world  and  a 
large  part  of  the  less  valuable  Atlantic  Ocean,  the  dividing 
line  being  a  meridian  drawn  one  hundred  leagues  west  of 
the  Azores.  As  a  result  of  the  violent  trade  disputes  that 
arose  from  this  arbitrary  exercise  of  power,  Magellan  was 
sent  out  to  find  independent  trade  routes,  and  to  circum- 
navigate the  globe  in  1520.  The  result  was  a  most  ex- 
traordinary intellectual  upheaval.  The  world,  by  papal 
preference,  had  remained  flat  up  to  this  time,  and  now  the 
old  theory  must  go  by  the  boards  and  with  it  half  the 
pseude  -  scientific  accumulation  of  the  ages,  including 
that  well -nurtured  and  useful  doctrine  of  papal  infal- 
libility. 

176 


FIG.    JO — THE    LIBRARY,    VENICE 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

It  was  about  this  same  time  that  Luther  and  Calvin  made 
their  related  discoveries  of  a  new  world  of  idealism  in  the 
Bible  that  lies  beyond  the  doctrine  and  teachings  of  the 
official  Church.  Their  discovery  shook  the  institution  to 
its  foundation.  The  influence  of  these  two  men  grew 
slowly,  and  while  it  never  did  reach  Italy  or  Spain,  many 
other  forces,  among  them  Savonarola,  were  at  work  dis- 
integrating the  temporal  power  of  the  pope,  and  in  con- 
siderable degree  his  spiritual  power  also,  as  we  have  seen 
in  France. 

In  Italy  a  most  potent  factor  in  this  general  ferment  of 
progress  was  a  period  of  intellectual  discovery  far  in  ex- 
cess of  that  to  the  North.  We  have  seen  that  this  was 
stimulated  by  the  immigration  of  scholars  and  artists  from 
the  East. 

Out  of  Italy  came  the  original   Church  with  its   im- 

O 

petuous  and  clarifying  influence,  and  out  of  Italy  was  now 
to  come  this  new  intellectualism  which  was  needed  to  re- 
place the  dying  force  of  the  corrupt  and  political  Church  of 
these  later  days.  Again  the  East  supplied  the  coloring 
matter  which  was  so  sadly  needed  in  the  spiritual  grayness 
of  the  time,  and  the  civilized  world  began  another  climb 
toward  the  almost  attainable.  We  are  to-day  still  on  that 
upward  climb,  struggling  toward  an  altitude  equal  to  that 
reached  in  France  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

Italy  at  this  time  was  divided,  first,  into  three  great  zones 
of  influence  which,  in  turn,  were  subdivided  by  the  numer- 
ous republics  and  their  environments.  In  the  north  there 
was  the  Teutonic  and  the  influence  of  the  nearest  neighbor 
on  the  west,  the  Romanesque  south  of  France,  the  first 
province  of  old  Rome.  In  the  south  was  the  Sicilian,  now 
under  Spanish  domination,  but  with  Greek  Classic  and 

178 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

Greek  Byzantine  tradition  and  the  added  insult  of  Sara- 
cenic and  Norman  invasions. 

In  the  centre  were  Rome  and  the  papal  states — inflexible, 
undying  Rome,  molding  others,  but  sufficient  unto  herself. 
Thus,  while  there  was  a  sort  of  Gothic  architecture  in  the 
south,  and  more  of  a  mixed  Gothic  in  the  north,  there  was 
none  in  all  the  Roman  area.  It  was  rejected  as  barbaric 
and  unfit. 

Byzantine  was  used  in  the  south  because  of  trade  and 
racial  connections  with  the  people  of  the  East  and  along 
the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  In  the  seaports  this 
influence  is  apparent,  but  none  of  it  touches  the  Imperial 
City.  In  the  same  manner  approaching  from  the  north 
we  find  odd  and  interesting  traces  and  translations  of  tliL> 
spirit  which  created  Gothic,  which  here  in  Italy  might 
more  properly  be  called  pointed  Romanesque,  but  it  stops 
absolutely  at  the  gates  of  Rome.  She  is  content  with  the 
Classic  tradition,  her  basilican  Romanesque,  and  later  with 
her  reborn  and  modernized  early  Classic. 

Venice  and  Genoa,  situated  as  they  are  at  the  ends  of 
the  water-routes  to  Europe  from  the  East  and  a  short  dis- 
tance only  from  the  headwaters  of  the  rivers  flowing  into 
the  North  Sea,  were  more  or  less  under  the  thumb  of  the 
Emperor  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  and  the  Teutonic 
people  of  the  North.  Venice  had  her  added  Saracenic 
touch,  which  came  from  constant  trade,  honest  and  other- 
wise, with  the  Orient.  So  she  had  the  mysticism  of  the 
East  side  by  side  with  the  vigor  of  the  West.  And  this  is 
our  Venice — that  City  of  Dreams. 

On  account  of  the  increasing  complexity  of  life  in  these 
Italian  centres  there  began  at  this  time  a  period  of  re- 
search into  the  old  Roman  law.  Precedents  were  needed 

i  So 


FIG.    72 — THE    CAPITOL,    ROME 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

and  were  found.  The  hunt  for  them  stimulated  other 
lines  of  research,  and  undoubtedly  contributed  very  large- 
ly to  the  revival  of  classicism  in  the  Fine  Arts  which  had 
so  important  an  effect  on  the  later  growth  of  architectural 
style. 

These  various  cities  or  trading  centres  had  not  even  that 
cohesion  among  them  that  was  afforded  by  the  feudal 
system  of  France,  while  the  national  idea  did  not  culmi- 
nate in  Italy  until  our  own  time,  though  the  intellectual 
Renaissance  of  the  time  we  are  discussing  was  effectively 
unifying.  This  lack  of  nationalism  accounts  for  the  lack  of 
any  broad  and  harmonious  development  of  architectural 
styles  even  under  the  stimulus  of  the  classic  revival  that 
we  are  now  to  examine.  Instead  of  a  great  and  virile 
growth  that  we  might  truly  call  Italian,  there  were  local 
developments  of  great  beauty,  which  are  more  properly 
and  usually  named  for  the  cities  in  which  they  appeared— 
Venetian,  Florentine,  or  Roman. 

The  results  of  this  period  of  culture  in  Italy  are  among 
the  world's  choicest  heritages,  and  it  is  not  to  be  won- 
dered at  that  when  France  caught  the  inspiration  she, 
\vith  a  still  unexhausted  remnant  of  Norman  virility,  did 
great  things  with  it. 

In  this  awakening  Italy  received  from  the  Eastern 
refugees  a  new  knowledge  of  ancient  Greek  art  and  litera- 
ture. They  brought  with  them  manuscripts  that  stirred 
the  scholars  profoundly  and  started  the  ransacking  of  the 
monasteries  and  churches  of  Italy.  In  consequence  we  find 
men  like  Dante  and  Petrarch  under  the  classic  inspira- 
tion. Later  (1447),  the  Vatican  library  was  established  for 
the  collection  and  preservation  of  the  mass  of  manuscripts. 

In  architecture,   because  of  the  occupation  of  Greece 

182 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

by  the  Turks,  there  was  apparently  no  return  to  the  Greek 
originals,  Roman  sources  of  inspiration  being  drawn  upon 
entirely. 

It  must  be  realized  that  conditions  of  living  had  changed 
greatly  since  early  Roman  and  Greek  times.  Second  and 
third  stories  had  been  added  to  the  palaces  and  larger 
residences,  the  Christian  Church  had  taken  a  definite 
form  considerably  beyond  that  of  the  old  basilicas,  and 
construction  had  become  substantially  the  same  as  in  our 
own  times;  therefore,  a  revival  of  classic  architecture 
could  not  mean  a  return  to  the  single-story  columned  and 
arcaded  temple,  but  merely  the  adaptation  or  application 
of  the  classic  forms  to  the  more  modern  building.  Thus 
the  column  becomes  a  pilaster,  applied  to  the  walls  with 
one  of  the  classic  forms  of  capital.  The  architrave  is 
used,  with  all  its  classic  purity  of  line  and  detail,  and  the 
pediment  or  gable  appears  intact,  or  its  angular  form  is 
curved  or  broken  and  adapted  to  the  crowning  of  windows 
and  doors. 

It  is  quite  impossible  and  not  part  of  our  purpose  to 
go  into  any  long  analysis  of  the  multiple  variations  of 
Italian  styles.  It  would  help  us  very  little  in  studying 
buildings  here  at  home,  or  to  understand  the  great  main 
current  of  architectural  progress  that  we  have  been  fol- 
lowing. It  is  enough  to  see,  what  we  have  already  in- 
dicated, that  in  the  South  there  was  a  sufficient  Gothic 
infusion  to  produce  a  relatively  unimportant  hybrid  called 
pointed  Byzantine;  in  the  North  a  similar  infusion  pro- 
duced pointed  Romanesque,  the  Teutonic  influence  giv- 
ing a  certain  hardness  and  heaviness  to  this  and  the 
newly  evolving  styles,  while  in  the  central  area  the  Gothic 
was  rejected  altogether. 

184 


THE   THIRD    GREAT   TRANSITION 

Besides  this  we  may  examine  briefly  three  of  the  chief 
Italian  cities,  in  each  of  which  the  reborn  classic  developed 
distinctively  and  importantly.  The  three  cities  are 
Florence,  Venice,  and  Rome. 

Florence  remained  wholly  classic  through  the  Gothic 
period  of  France.  It  was  a  city  of  endless  strife,  and 
therefore  of  amazing  vigor.  Like  the  slow  but  resistless 
Arno  at  its  feet,  its  men  were  men  of  seemingly  resistless 
force;  therefore,  Guelf  and  Ghibelline,  Church  and  State, 
the  Papacy  and  the  Free-thinkers  were  ever  at  one  an- 
other's throats.  And  oddly  married  to  this  local  warfare 
was  an  intense  and  burning  local  pride.  To  the  Floren- 
tine of  whatever  party  or  creed  all  the  rest  of  the  world 
was  wholly  barbarian.  Out  of  these  conditions  developed 
a  group  of  creative  men  that  was  to  make  the  world  marvel. 
Living  and  working  apart  from  the  actual  conflict  of 
house,  party,  and  creed,  they  were  yet  inevitably  stimu- 
lated by  the  spirit  of  it,  and  painted,  carved,  and  built 
with  astonishing  power.  Of  this  group  were  such  colossal 
figures  as  Michael  Angelo,  Fra  Angelico,  Brunelleschi, 
Giotto,  and  Cellini,  to  mention  only  a  few.  These  men 
designed  and  executed  a  silver  chalice  for  the  pope,  or 
invented  a  great  dome  for  the  cathedral  with  equal  sure- 
ness  and  success.  Palaces,  fortifications,  sculpture,  paint- 
ing, and  faience  are  accepted  as  the  work  of  one  man 
without  incredulity. 

Even  the  change  of  rule  from  the  uncertain  dukes  to 
the  stable  Medicis,  with  all  it  represented,  seems  only  to 
have  intensified  the  creative  spirit.  What  manner  of  men 
these  were  is  told,  for  example,  in  the  architecture  of  the 
Palace  Riccardi  (Fig.  67).  The  strength  of  the  walls, 
the  size  of  each  course  of  stone,  the  solidity  of  the  arches, 

185 


THE    THIRD    GREAT    TRANSITION 

and  the  massive  translation  of  the  classic  cornice  all  denote 
strength  without  grossness,  the  power  of  a  splendid  re- 
pose. The  arches  are  round  on  the  inside,  but  the  centre 
stones  are  thickened  so  as  to  make  the  outer  line  in 
pointed  arch  form,  which  gives  a  suggestion  of  full  sup- 
port suggestive  of  the  Greek  trick  of  thickening  the 
lintel  to  the  same  end. 

The  upper  stories  of  the  Florentine  buildings  were 
treated  in  a  modified  Roman  manner;  that  is,  with  a 
plastered  and  pilastered  secondary  section.  In  many 
cases  the  cornice  projected  far  out  from  the  walls  and 
was  of  wood,  the  timber-ends  being  carved  in  the  form 
of  brackets.  This  type  frequently  has  open  arcades  with 
columns  supporting  the  upper  stories. 

Venice,  at  the  northern  end  of  the  Adriatic,  has  a  re- 
markable life-story  that  is  graphically  told  in  its  archi- 
tecture. Dominating  the  trade  of  the  Eastern  seas  and 
controlling  the  entrance  to  the  overland  routes  northward, 
it  took  heavy  toll  during  many  centuries.  The  Crusaders 
on  their  way  to  the  Holy  Land  and  the  traders  returning 
westward  with  their  treasures  alike  paid  dearly  for  the 
privilege  of  passing  through  the  port.  With  loot  and  toll 
of  precious  marbles  and  mosaics  from  the  East,  and  money 
from  the  West,  Venice  built  to  her  civic  ideal  magnifi- 
cently. To  her  patron  saint,  Mark,  she  built  her  cathe- 
dral. And  as  she  was  the  Byzantium  of  trade  in  these 
later  days  she  built,  oddly  enough,  in  the  style  of  the 
great  Byzantine  St.  Sophia,  in  Constantinople,  creating 
the  second  of  the  three  notable  Byzantine  churches  in 
existence. 

As  became  a  centre  of  world  trade,  Venice  was  cosmo- 
politan and  fearless,  and  its  architects  used  Byzantine, 

187 


THE    THIRD    GREAT    TRANSITION 

Roman,  Greek,  Gothic,  and  the  new  translation  of  the 
ancient  classic  for  the  glorification  of  its  ideals.  But  so 
distinct  was  the  identity  of  the  city  that  out  of  each  style 
it  created  a  variety  of  its  own,  each  subtly  harmoni/ing 
with  the  others.  Thus  Venetian  Gothic  and  Venetian 
Renaissance  are  almost  distinct  styles,  and  it  is  to  be 
noted  that  in  Venice  alone,  of  all  the  cities  of  northern 
Italy,  the  Teutonic  influence  we  have  met  was  dominated 
by  the  city's  own  personality.  The  Byzantine  alone 
yields  to  no  local  influence  and  remains  wholly  of  the 
East,  though  even  it  seems  Venetian  in  Venice. 

St.  Mark's  records  an  enthusiasm  little  short  of  that 
which  sent  the  thirteenth -century  Gothic  churches  up 
into  the  northern  skies,  and  it  inspires  enthusiasm  ac- 
cordingly. Here  one  finds  complete  the  devotional  story 
of  the  people,  with  the  ancient  Parvis  or  open  square  in 
front,  the  Narthex  or  Porch  of  the  Penitents,  and  the  body 
of  the  church  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross,  with  its  five 
golden  domes  mellowing  the  gloom  of  the  gorgeous  in- 
terior. Here  there  is  colored  marble  in  magnificent 
matched  slabs  climbing  to  the  spring  of  the  arch.  In 
the  domes  the  story  of  the  world  from  Genesis  to  Christ 
is  told  in  richest  mosaic.  The  dome  of  the  apse  carries 
the  great  and  solitary  figure  of  the  Christ  in  full  manhood 
and  majesty,  a  manly  tribute  of  a  manly  generation  which 
had  not  yet  been  taught  the  equal  godhood  of  the  Virgin 
Mother. 

The  exterior  shows  round  arches  recessed  and  orna- 
mented on  the  face  of  the  arch  stones,  round  arches  in 
smaller  arcades,  and  round  arches  again  projecting  above 
the  main  wall  and  forming  an  airy  sky-line,  with  the  bul- 
bous domes  beyond  (Fig.  68).  I  wish  I  might  go  further 

189 


FIG.    76— TIFFANY   AND    COMPANY,    NEW    YORK    (VENETIAN) 


THE    THIRD    GREAT    TRANSITION 

into  description  of  this  gorgeous  masterpiece,  so  unique  in 
all  the  world.  It  is  an  amazingly  joyful  and  complete 
ofi'ering  to  an  ideal,  though  without  slavish  acceptance  of 
the  laws.  I  like  to  think  of  it  as  a  pile  of  loot  put  together 
enthusiastically  and  fearlessly  by  those  old  Venetian  sea 
rovers  and  traders  who  knew  no  law  but  the  law  of  the 
storm. 

Of  the  Venetian  Gothic  we  have  supreme  examples  in 
the  Palace  of  the  Doge  (Fig.  69).  Notice  how  its  spirit 
of  smoothness  gives  the  effect  of  assurance  of  strength. 
The  pointed  arch  is  used  in  many  ways,  though  not  for 
vaulting,  but  this  is  almost  the  only  Gothic  characteristic, 
and  I  should  prefer  to  call  the  style  a  developed  Roman- 
esque. Certainly  it  has  not  the  essence  of  the  great  Gothic 
of  the  North.  One  of  the  characteristics  of  the  Venetian 
style  is  the  decoration  of  the  inside  of  the  arch  with  curved 
projections,  or  cusps,  making  the  opening  a  three-leaved 
shape,  and  hence  called  trefoil.  This  form  was  also  used 
in  smaller  form  throughout  the  decoration. 

Of  the  Venetian  Renaissance,  Palladio  (1518-1580)  was 
the  moving  spirit,  and  a  powerful  and  influential  one  in  this 
country  to  the  present  day.  While  he  with  the  other 
architects  used  the  classic  columns  and  horizontal  cornice 
with  arched  openings  and  arcades  as  was  being  done 
throughout  Italy,  they  were  truer  to  the  classic  tradition  in 
the  matter  of  making  their  supports  really  carry  a  load. 
In  the  Florentine,  for  instance,  they  were  often  merely 
plastered  on  the  face  of  the  walls.  The  Library  by 
Sansovino  is  a  characteristic  example  of  this  (Fig.  70). 

Following  Palladio  the  Venetian  Renaissance  grew  over- 
lavish  and  unstudied  because  of  the  city's  rapid  accumula- 
tion of  wealth,  and  there  is  a  distinct  decadence  to  a 

191 


FIG.    77  —PUBLIC    LIBRARY    NO.    29,    N  K\V    YORK.    (FLORENTINE) 


THE    THIRD    GREAT    TRANSITION 

variety  that  is  called  baroque  (shell-like).  This  period  of  de- 
cadence interestingly  parallels  that  of  the  time  of  Louis  XV. 
in  France,  which  we  shall  study  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 

The  influence  of  Rome  is,  it  seems,  everlasting.  Just 
as  it  was  the  conserving  and  dominating  force  in  archi- 
tecture during  the  Renaissance,  so  it  is  for  us  to-day.  All 
the  great  schools  of  art  in  Europe  have  their  grand  prix 
de  Rome,  and  American  art  students,  especially  in  archi- 
tecture, go  to  the  American  Academy  at  Rome  as  to  the 
school  of  final  authority.  This  is  largely  because  the  con- 
servatism of  the  Imperial  City  has  kept  the  growth  of 
classic  architecture  practically  continuous  and  undefiled  by 
intrusive  influences.  Roman  Renaissance  architecture  is 
truer  to  its  ancient  prototype  than  any  other,  and  is,  never- 
theless, so  far  as  Italy  is  concerned,  distinctly  local.  It 
had  the  reserve  and  delicacy  which  Florence  and  Venice 
lacked,  and  it  therefore  came  nearer  to  filling  the  tempera- 
mental requirements  of  the  French  architects  when  they 
began  to  draw  on  the  new  Italian  inspiration. 

This  difference  is  noticed  in  the  palaces,  for  instance. 
The  type  is  generally  the  same  as  that  of  Florence,  but 
there  is  much  more  insistence  on  the  proportions  and 
fineness  of  classic  tradition.  The  Farnese  Palace  (Fig.  71) 
is  the  typical  example  of  Roman  Renaissance.  Its  three 
stories  are  divided  by  belts  or  moldings,  and  the  windows 
decorated  with  small  columns  and  pediments,  pointed  or 
curved. 

Michael  Angelo  used  the  pilaster  and  the  horizontal  en- 
tablature of  the  ancient  Roman  in  the  capitol  which  wras 
designed  by  him  in  1542;  the  decorated  window  opening  of 
each  bay  or  panel  between  the  piers  was  designed  in  a  cur- 
tain wall  which  is  not  a  supporting  wall  (Fig.  72). 


THE    THIRD    GREAT    TRANSITION 

Oddly  enough  a  great  deal  of  the  building  done  in  Rome 
at  this  time  was  by  the  Florentine  artists  we  have  men- 
tioned, and  the  fact  that  they  built  in  a  distinctive  style 
here  is  an  added  tribute  to  their  versatility  as  well  as  to  the 
strong  local  sentiment  of  the  Imperial  City.. 

To  sum  up,  one  might  state  Italian  Renaissance  char- 
acteristics thus.  Common  to  practically  all  examples  is 
the  use  of  the  classic  columns  for  perpendicular  sup- 
port and  of  horizontal  lines  above.  The  columns  are, 
however,  more  widely  spaced  than  in  the  classic,  and  be- 
tween and  behind  them  are  either  arches  with  smaller 
columns  or  posts  supporting  them  independently  of  the 
main  columns,  or  window  and  door  openings  with  molded 
frames  and  pointed  or  round  gables  adopted  from  the 
classic  pediment.  These  fundamental  characteristics  were 
modified  locally  according  as  the  influence  was  Roman, 
Florentine,  or  Venetian. 

Fig.  73  is  an  interesting  example  of  the  domestic  use 
of  one  of  the  sub-types — the  Romanesque  of  the  Italian. 

Our  cities  and  towns  are  full  of  the  modern  translation 
of  this  Italian  revival.  You  will  find  Italian  detail  and 
motifs  in  our  brownstone  monstrosities,  in  our  office  build- 
ings, and  in  many  of  our  private  houses;  but  such  buildings 
as  the  New  York  Herald  Building  (Fig.  74),  and  its  Verona 
ancestor  (Fig.  75),  the  University  Club,  the  Tiffany  Build- 
ing (Fig.  76),  and  the  small  library  in  New  York  City 
(Fig.  77)  are  pure  examples  of  the  style.  These  buildings 
were  designed  by  the  greatest  students  of  Italian  Renais- 
sance of  modern  times.  The  Pennsylvania  station  in 
New  York  (Fig.  78)  is  another  example  by  these  modern 
masters  of  Italian  Renaissance. 


CHAPTER  XI 

TFIE    RENAISSANCE    IN    FRANCE 

HE  story  of  the  introduction  of  clas- 
sicism into  France  is  not  one  of  sci- 
entific discovery,  but  rather  of  political 
ambition.  Charles  VIII.,  last  of  the 
Valois  kings,  sighed  for  a  new  world 
empire  to  include  Constantinople,  Jeru- 
salem, and  the  East,  as  others  had 
sighed  before  him.  He  revived  some  old  claims  of  inher- 
itance to  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  which  he  entered  in  tri- 
umph in  1495,  proclaiming  himself  King  of  Naples,  Em- 
peror of  the  East,  and  King  of  Jerusalem,  and  then  folded 
his  tents  and  marched  back  again  with  his  standing  army 
of  fifty  thousand  men.  This  is  the  beginning  of  the  Ital- 
ian wars  which  gave  to  France  sovereignty  over  the  intel- 
lect and  arts  of  the  East. 

The  precipitate  return  of  King  Charles  to  France  was 
much  more  beneficial  and  therefore  important  than  the 
political  control  of  the  East  could  possibly  have  been. 
He  brought  back  knowledge  of  men,  and  beautiful  things 
in  literature  and  in  the  fine  arts,  such  as  his  people  had  not 
known.  It  was  these  Italian  wars,  carried  on  by  Charles 
and  his  successor  Francis,  that  gave  France  the  knowledge 
of  the  Renaissance  of  Italy  and  supplied  her  fagged  brain 
with  new  stimulus. 

196 


THE    RENAISSANCE    IN     FRANCE 


France  was  then,  as  we  have  seen,  in  its  artistic  deca- 
dence following  the  Age  of  Love  and  decayed  chivalry, 
while  Italy  was  rising  on  the  tide  ot  its  new  inspiration. 
Charles  took  back  Italian  craftsmen  and  sent  his  own 
people  south  to  study  the  new  movement,  and  from  this 
time  on  there  begins  a  gradual  infusion  of  classic  detail 
into  the  flamboyant  or  fifteenth-century  Gothic  until  it 
becomes  the  French  Re- 
naissance of  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries. 
This  style  in  its  several 
variations  dominates  ar- 
chitecture in  the  Occi- 
dental world  to-day.  In 
this,  France,  with  her 
nervous  energy,  an  in- 
heritance from  her  Nor- 
man blood  which  the  age 
of  chivalry  had  not  suf- 
ficed to  destroy  entirely, 
became  more  Italian  than 
Italy  herself,  outdoing  all 
her  neighbors  in  the  dar- 
ing, originality,  and  ex- 
cellence of  her  creative 
achievements. 

The     scientists     (by 
whom     I     mean     in     this 

case  the  architects),  encouraged  by  the  interest  of  the 
rulers  in  the  new  idea,  began  with  characteristic  French 
energy  to  study  the  old  laws  and  traditions,  gradual- 
ly discarding  their  own  as  the  new  and  strange  ones 
14  197 


FIG.  79— LOUIS  XII.  DOORWAY 
(LATE  GOTHIC) 


MG.     8o — CHATEAU    AT    BLO1S,    FRANCE    (FRANCIS    I.) 


THE    RENAISSANCE    IN    FRANCE 

were  assimilated  and  adapted  to  their  new  environ- 
ment (Fig.  79). 

How  well  the  architects  learned  their  lesson  and  how 
successfully  they  played  with  the  old  forms  we  shall  see. 
They  were,  in  fact,  so  successful  that  to-day  the  classic  is 
ours,  a  thing  of  familiar  knowledge  and  use,  while  the  use 
and  study  of  the  Gothic  is  not  only  not  encouraged  by  the 
schools,  but  is  often  considered  only  an  interesting  sur- 
vival. It  is  accepted  by  the  laity  as  for  church-building 
only,  and  is  often  actually  regarded  as  belonging  exclu- 
sively to  times  long  past. 

The  classic,  on  the  other  hand,  has  been  studied  and 
restudied  and  drilled  into  the  modern  practitioner  till  he 
knows  its  multitudinous  subclassifications  at  a  glance. 
This  has  not  prevented  him,  however,  from  numerous  at- 
tempts to  create;  that  have  resulted  in  architectural  mon- 
strosities which  a  fair  acceptance  of  classic  tradition  would 
have  saved  us  from. 

The  historian  also  has  bothered  us  with  impossible  hair- 
splitting in  the  matter  of  classifications.  We  find  in  many 
text-books  this  period  so  divided  and  subdivided  into 
styles,  transitions,  and  subtransitions  as  to  confuse  the 
most  painstaking  student.  There  is  no  need  at  all,  as  far 
as  I  can  see,  for  any  such  pedantic  and  tiresome  picking  of 
dry  bones,  but  there  is  need  that  we  should  see  and  feel 
the  vital  and  immensely  human  conditions  that  caused 
this  fascinating  evolution  of  a  style,  and  stamped  them- 
selves on  its  varying  forms,  so  that  we  may  read  and  in  turn 
express  with  aptness  and  directness. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  various  substyles  merge  almost 
imperceptibly  from  one  to  the  other,  overlapping  in  most 
bewildering  fashion.  During  the  early  part  of  the  Renais- 

199 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 


sance  period  the  architects  were  absorbing  from  their 
immediate  predecessors,  and  at  the  same  time  were  con- 
stantly borrowing  anew  from  the  original  classics  and 
drawing  from  the  varied  developments  in  Italy.  For  this 
reason  there  is  not  the  consecutive  growth  that  would  be 

found  in  an  entirely 
new  style  such  as  the 
Gothic  was. 

There  are,  however, 
four  well-defined  peri- 
ods in  the  French  Re- 
naissance, the  charac- 
teristics of  which  are 
determined  by  the  life 
of  the  court,  and,  in 
lesser  degree,  by  the 
wars,  by  trade,  and  by 
the  political  and  relig- 
ious conditions  of  the 
times.  It  is  interesting 
to  note,  in  this  connec- 
tion, that  architecture, 
from  being  broadly  na- 

FIG.  8 1 — CHIMNEY  AT  BLOIS,  FRANCE 

(FR \NCIS  T  )  tional  in  type,  becomes 

specific  and  official,  so 

that  now  for  the  first  time  we  find  it  classified  by  the 
names  of  the  successive  rulers. 

The  history  of  the  race  is  a  sort  of  fever  chart  of  its  moral 
temperature.  Period  after  period  divides  itself  into  a 
steady  rise  by  strenuous  endeavor  fired  by  lofty  enthu- 
siasm, then  a  climax  of  power,  a  relaxation,  and  with  it  a 
dip  into  licentiousness,  then  decadence,  until  a  new  force 

200 


THE    RENAISSANCE    IN    FRANCE 


comes  in  with  a  new  ideal  to  start  another  climb.  Side  by 
side  with  the  line  that  marks  this  rise  and  fall  is  the  line  of 
architectural  expression.  You  may  trace  either  line  to  any 
point,  and  be  sure  that  the  other  will  be  close  at  hand. 
We  therefore  return  again  to  the  axiom  that  architecture 
is  an  accurate  historical  gauge  for  the  political  and  moral 
conditions  of  its  time,  and,  conversely,  that  these  human 
conditions  are  the  fundamental 
causes  for  the  variations  and 
growth  of  style. 

France  went  through  one  of 
these  cycles — albeit  a  rather 
irregular  one — during  the  years 
of  the  Renaissance. 

The  period,  as  we  have  seen, 
begins  in  1495  with  tne  visit  of 
Charles  VIII.  to  Italy.  Then 
followed,  until  the  end  of  the 
reign  of  Francis  I.  in  1547,  a 
subperiod  of  fifty -two  years, 
which  may  fairly  be  called  an  age 
of  discovery.  You  remember 
that  it  was  during  this  time  that 
whole  new  worlds  of  commer- 
cial activity,  of  scientific  knowl- 
edge and  religious  thought,  were 
opened  up.  The  progress  thus 
made  revitalized  the  earth. 
France,  with  her  keen,  receptive, 

and  creative  temperament,  weaned  though  she  was  with 
excesses,  felt  it  intensely,  and  the  results  are  in  many  ways 
apparent.  Her  own  discoveries  were,  however,  chiefly  in- 

20 1 


FIG.  82 — DORMER  AT  BLOIS, 
FRANCE 

Transition,  neither  pure  Gothic 
nor  Classic. 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

tellectual,  and  she  was  much  occupied  with  this  most  in- 
teresting find  of  a  new  mode  of  expression  in  architecture. 
The  period  includes  the  reigns  of  Charles  VIII.,  Louis 
XII.,  and  Francis  I.     At  first  the  use  of  classic  forms  was 


FIG.   83 — THE   PAVILION   AT    FONTAINEBLKAU,   PARIS     (FRANCIS    I.) 

tentative.  We  find  classic  pilasters  used  sparingly  on  build- 
ings otherwise  flamboyant  in  style.  Greater  boldness 
followed.  Soon  classic  moldings  appeared  freely  inter- 
spersed with  the  Gothic  forms,  and  during  the  reign  of 
Francis  the  classic  decorations,  cleverly  adapted  and 
greatly  enriched,  dominated  the  new  buildings,  which  re- 
tained only  just  sufficient  of  the  old  flamboyant  char- 
acteristics to  recall  the  union.  It  was  not  until  after  the 
death  of  Francis  that  these  characteristics  practically  dis- 

202 


FIG.    84 — FINE    ARTS    BUILDING,    NEW    YORK    (FRANCIS    I.) 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

appeared,  thus  marking  the  end  of  the  discovery  or  tran- 
sition period  and  the  beginning  of  a  new. 

The  most  important  example  of  the  transition  in  archi- 
tecture during  this  period  is  the  Chateau  Blois  (Fig.  80). 
This  was  begun  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XII.  and  finished 
under  Francis  I.  So  rapid  was  the  infusion  of  the  new 
idea  that  there  is  a  distinct  difference  in  the  work 
during  the  two  latter  reigns.  The  early  parts  are  very 
largely  fifteenth-centurv  Gothic.  There  are  balustrades 
in  pure  Gothic,  the  pediments  have  the  curious  double 
curve,  and  the  flattened  arches  are  decorated  with  drops, 
making  a  series  of  little  round  arches  within  the  large 
arch.  There  are  fintals  on  the  piers,  with  their  pointed 
tops  and  curious  crockets,  or  bunches  of  leaf  forms,  climb- 
ing the  coping  stones  of  the  gables  at  regular  intervals. 

The  interesting  Gothic  moldings,  with  their  thin, 
nervous  profile  and  heavy  undercutting,  giving  keenness 
to  the  high  light  of  the  almost  metal-like  edge,  were  still 
used.  The  classic  influence  is  shown  in  the  horizontal 
lines  of  the  belts  and  in  the  cornice,  which  is  not  only 
without  entablature,  but  has  moldings  showing  the 
classic  motifs. 

As  the  Gothic  influence  was  slowly  merged  into  the 
classic,  or  what  was  then  understood  as  the  classic,  under 
the  influence  of  Francis's  encouragement  of  the  art,  the 
building  changed  materially.  On  the  latter  part  are  the 
pilasters,  with  the  Italian  panels  of  relief,  foliage  and  fig- 
ures delicately  designed,  and  suggesting  somewhat  the 
mural  decorations  of  Pompeii  or  the  Raphael  Loggia  in 
Rome. 

The  characteristic  diamond  form,  set  in  the  molded 
panels  of  the  pilaster,  is  present,  and  is  generally  indica- 

204 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

tive  of  the  subperiod  of  Francis  I.  Now,  too,  the  keen- 
ness of  the  Gothic  molding  began  to  dull  to  the  gentler 
curves  of  the  classic.  An  odd  reversion  to  the  Roman- 
esque is  found  at  Blois  in  the  series  of  small  arches  with 
blocks  supporting  the  birth  of  the  arches.  Here,  as  in 
those  earlier  churches  of  southern  France,  this  form  took 
the  place  of  the  old  Roman  frieze  and  architrave.  The 
arches  enclose  molded  shells,  the  symbol  of  the  pilgrim, 
a  very  beautiful  form  frequently  used  to  this  day,  and 
are  molded  on  the  edges.  The  block  or  corbel,  which  in 
the  Romanesque  showed  geometric  design,  becomes  a 
carved  flower  and  loses  itself  in  the  rejuvenated  group  of 
ornamented  classic  moldings,  a  familiar  form  of  which 
was  the  egg-and-dart,  still  much  used,  and,  in  its  various 
modifications,  a  sure  index  of  the  period  of  Renaissance 
to  which  it  belonged.  Another  Romanesque  feature  em- 
ployed at  Blois  is  the  use  of  round  columns  or  half- 
columns  in  corners.  Here  they  were  ingeniously  bonded 
into  the  brick  walls  with  the  stone  of  the  column  (Fig.  81). 
The  roofs  remained  steep,  as  in  the  Gothic,  for  this  was 
a  country  of  gray  skies  and  much  rain  and  snow,  and 
they  were  embellished  with  ornately  decorated  chimneys. 
It  is  evident  that  the  architects  were  not  limited  as  to 
time  or  expenditure,  and  they  seem  to  have  taken  keen 
enjoyment  from  the  elaboration  of  beautiful  detail  in  ob- 
scure places.  The  manner  in  which  they  mixed  the 
forms  of  ancient  Rome  with  those  of  ihe  late  Roman,  or 
Romanesque,  is  a  matter  of  some  astonishment  to  us  to- 
day, but  it  is  not  as  odd  as  the  fact  that  in  all  their  clelv- 
ings  into  the  classic  they  did  not  seem  to  have  discovered 
the  inspiration  of  the  original  Greek  work.  They  show 
neither  the  exquisite  fineness  and  aristocracy  of  line  of 

206 


THE    RENAISSANCE    IN    FRANCE 

the  Greek  moldings  nor  the  splendid  nervous  vigor  of 
the  thirteenth-century  Gothic,  and  their  work,  however 
beautiful,  is  the  weaker  therefor  (Fig.  82). 

Decoration  began  to  be  carried  to  extremes  in  this 
period.  Not  contented  with  their  richly  panelled  pi- 
lasters, they  must  add  to  the  face  of  the  pilaster  a  richly 


FIG.   86 — CHATEAU    OF    AZAY    I.E    RIDEAU,    FRANCE 

turned  and  highly  ornate  post  or  column  of  three-fourths 
projection,  the  capital  of  which  was  partly  incorporated 
with  that  of  the  pilasters.  The  simple  volutes,  or  scrolls, 
of  the  old  Greek  caps  become  child  figures,  flowers,  or 
fanciful  animal  forms,  united  with  the  softened  Roman 
interpretation  of  the  acanthus  leaf.  These  forms  are 

207 


THE    RENAISSANCE    IN    FRANCE 

missing  from  Blois,  but  are  used  in  the  so-called  shooting- 
box  of  Francis  I.  (Fig.  83),  which  has  been  removed  from 
Fontainebleau  to  Paris,  and  which  inspired  the  Fine  Arts 
Building  on  West  Fifty-seventh  Street,  New  York  (Fig.  84). 

Chateau  Chambord,  the  masterpiece  of  this  period, 
was  built  by  Francis  I.  for  his  lady-love  in  1523,  and  is  a 
most  marvellous  expression  of  the  times  (Fig.  85).  Here 
we  find  the  steep  Gothic  roofs  and  the  round  towers  of 
the  military  Gothic,  covered,  however,  with  the  motifs  or 
parts,  and  the  details  of  the  new  Renaissance. 

Azay  le  Rideau  and  Chenonceaux  are  fine  examples  of 
the  same  time  and  spirit,  expressed  in  the  same  manner, 
Gothic  in  form,  with  the  applied  horizontal  treatment  .and 
decoration  of  the  new  mode  (Figs.  86,  87). 

This  architecture  was  freely  copied  by  other  European 
nations,  and  as  they  did  not  take  into  account  even  the 
slender  stock  of  traditions  existing  around  it,  the  results 
are  generally  bizarre  in  the  extreme.  The  tiresome  and 
ornate  Spanish  Renaissance,  with  its  lavish  and  vulgar 
piling  of  ornament  upon  ornament,  is  a  typical  example. 

In  comparison  with  the  work  of  other  countries  at  this 
time,  the  French  show  subtility  of  analysis  and  a  fine  feel- 
ing for  the  incomparable  refinement  and  delicacy  of  the 
classic.  The  German  principalities,  however,  did  not 
compete  with  France  at  this  time,  for  they  were  coming 
strongly  under  the  influence  of  the  new  Protestantism  of 
Luther,  which  ordained  a  rigid  simplicity  and  purity  of 
life  that  was  in  direct  conflict  with  the  romantic  life  of 
the  French  court  that  had  called  this  new  art  into  being. 

With  the  style  known  as  Francis  I.,  we  begin  to  reach 
that  architecture  which  we  in  America  have  made  espe- 
cially our  own.  You  remember  that  the  Gothic  has  come 

209 


X 

THE    RENAISSANCE    IN    FRANCE 

to  be  disregarded  by  the  modern  schools  as  a  sort  of  non- 
essential,  or  professional  specialty,  and  its  use  confined  to 
a  very  limited  field.  Translations  of  the  French  Renais- 
sance styles  from  Francis  I.  to  Louis  XVI.  have  first  place 
in  our  entire  architectural  production,  and,  in  fact,  domi- 
nate it.  Our  interior  work  comes  from  this  period,  and  it 
supplies  the  type  for  nearly  all  monumental  buildings  of 
the  cities  to-day.  Francis  I.  was  the  transitional  style 
from  the  Gothic  to  the  pure  Renaissance,  though  its 
lavishness  has  prevented  its  frequent  use  in  expression  of 
our  cooler  sentiment.  It  has,  however,  found  a  place  in 
the  ornate  facades  of  many  of  the  modern  apartments, 
though  strangely  enough  the  finer  parts  of  this  short 
transition  from  one  mode  of  expression  to  another  have 
been  overlooked  by  the  rapid-fire  methods  of  modern  in- 
vestment work. 

The  Chateau  Schwab,  on  Riverside  Drive  in  New  York 
City  (Fig.  88),  is  an  example  of  the  careful  use  of  the 
style  under  the  inspiration  of  Chenonceaux  in  the  Loire 
Valley,  while  the  country-house  of  George  Vanderbilt,  in 
Biltmore,  has  not  only  Blois  but  the  entire  valley  of  the 
Loire  for  its  book  (Fig.  89).  With  a  student  owner  and 
the  Dean  of  the  profession  as  translators,  the  result  is  by 
far  the  best  of  the  Louis  XII.  in  these  modern  times. 
The  style  is,  however,  only  one  of  the  many  transitions, 
and  is  evolutionary  only  in  the  sense  of  holding  to  the  old 
forms,  however  badly  they  may  have  been  sorted,  until 
such  time  as  a  more  stable  acceptance  of  basic  principles 
could  be  developed. 


I 

oc 

O 
— . 


CHAPTER  XII 


FRANCIS    I.    TO    LOUIS    XVI. 

ERE  the  second  period  of  Renaissance 
progress  begins  with  the  death  of  the 
energetic  and  beauty-loving  Francis  I. 
of  the  pointed  nose,  ending  with  Henry 
IV.  (from  1547  to  1642) — ninety-six 
years.  It  marks  the  final  sloughing 
off  of  the  Gothic  influence  and  a 
ripening  of  the  new  style  into  a  rich  and  distinctive 
entity. 

It  is  difficult  to  trace  any  special  influence  of  great 
world  developments  in  the  architecture  of  this  active  con- 
structional period,  probably  because  the  century  was  one 
of  stirring  events  on  every  hand,  without  any  dominant 
new  force  visible  in  the  affairs  of  men. 

Protestantism  was,  of  course,  gaining  ground  rapidly  in 
the  Teutonic  countries,  but  it  invaded  France  in  much 
lesser  degree  and  is  hardly  to  be  reckoned  with  in  the 
architecture  of  this  time.  France's  war  with  Spain,  begun 
earlier,  continued  into  the  seventeenth  century.  At  one 
time  it  seemed  as  if  France  must  surely  become,  with 
Austria,  the  Netherlands,  the  Kingdom  of  Naples  and 
Burgundy,  the  property  of  the  Spanish  king,  Charles  V. 
With  the  treasuries  of  the  Incas  at  his  command,  this  ruler, 
15  213 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

his  territory  surrounding  France,  actually  claimed  the 
French  capital  as  his  own  city.  Me  was  unsuccessful, 
however,  and  France,  chastened,  went  on  with  her  build- 
ing of  chateaus  for  the  nobility. 

In  the  religious  warfare  between  the  Church  -:T  Rome 
and  the  new  Protestant  sects,  Italy,  France,  ard  Spain 
maintained  their  Catholicism  in  form  mostly.  The  fol- 
lowers of  John  Calvin  were  given  the  derisive  and  political 
nickname  of  Huguenots,  which  they  still  carry.  These 
Huguenots  were  involved  in  civil  wars  in  France,  for  re- 
ligion in  those  days  was  a  matter  of  arms  and  bloodshed. 
The  French  kings  alternately  favored  and  persecuted  this 
sect  according  to  their  political  needs,  but  the  policy  of 
suppression  became  dominant,  and  the  poor  Huguenots 
were  defeated  in  battle,  banished,  and  variously  persecuted 
until  the  horrors  culminated  in  the  dreadful  Massacre  of 
St.  Bartholomew  in  1572,  when  more  than  twenty  -  five 
thousand  men  and  women  were  slaughtered  throughout 
France.  This  massacre  was  instigated  by  that  lovely  and 
fascinating  woman,  the  ferocious  Catherine  de'  Medici, 
whose  son,  Charles,  fired  the  first  shot  from  the  windows 
of  the  Louvre. 

Large  numbers  of  Huguenot  artisans  had  been  banished, 
and  sailed  to  England  and  America,  and  this  retarded  in 
some  degree  the  country's  creative  power.  France's  as- 
tonishing reserve  force,  however,  came  to  her  rescue,  and 
when  Henry  IV.  closed  the  war  with  Spain,  and  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  in  1598  gave  a  measure  of  freedom  to  the  Hugue- 
nots, trade  and  manufactures  revived  rapidly,  and  an 
impetus  was  added  to  the  civil  life  of  the  nation  that  re- 
sulted in  the  third  or  culminative  period  ot  the  Renais- 
sance. 

214 


FRANCIS    I.   TO    LOUIS    XVI. 

Henry  IV.  was  the  dominant  figure  in  the  constructional 
period.  His  reign  was  one  of  tremendous  importance  to 
France.  He  was  far-sighted,  just,  and  able.  The  way 
he  brought  France  out  of  the  chaos  of  foreign  antagonism 
and  internal  dissension  was  masterly,  and  the  constructive 
statesmanship  by  which  he  quickly  made  France  the 
strongest  among  European  nations  endeared  him  to  the 
people  for  all  time.  Under  him  the  intellectual  life  of  the 
nation  blossomed  richly.  He  encouraged  the  arts  as  they 
had  seldom  been  encouraged,  providing  working  and  living 
quarters  for  the  artists  in  the  Louvre.  It  is  easy  to  under- 
stand that  under  these  conditions  much  was  accomplished. 

On  the  other  hand,  here  again  there  was  no  big,  domi- 
nant inspiration  to  creative  work.  In  religion,  adherence 
was  divided  between  a  reduced  Catholicism  and  a  new 
Protestantism,  in  politics  the  national  idea  was  full- 
flowered,  in  science  activity  was  in  the  direction  of  re- 
search. So  in  architecture  we  find  no  stirring  innovations, 
but  a  crystallizing  of  laws,  a  broader  recognition  of  the 
self-sufficiency  of  the  classic  forms,  and  a  certain  solidify- 
ing and  harmonizing  of  the  discoveries  made  and  experi- 
mented upon  during  the  preceding  reigns.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  it  might  well  be  called  the  period  of  construc- 
tion. All  the  wealth  of  suggestion  that  had  been  drawn 
from  ancient  Rome,  from  her  modern  interpreters  in  Italy 
and  from  the  French  adapters  of  the  classic  idea  in  the 
period  of  Renaissance  discovery,  were  sifted  and  organ- 
ized. A  strengthening  measure  of  scholastics  of  sound 
reasoning  was  added  to  the  flights  of  Renaissance  fancy 
that  laid  a  solid  foundation  for  the  rich  decorative  fruitage 
of  the  time  of  the  Louises. 

The  practical  Henry,  busy  as  he  was  in  repairing  the 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

depleted  national  treasury  without  imposing  too  heavy  a 
burden  on  the  people,  did  not  do  much  building  of  palaces, 
and  the  church-building  time  in  France  was  over  for  the 
present.  He  did,  however,  add  a  wing  to  the  Louvre,  and 
continued  the  palaces  at  St.  Germain  and  Fontainebleau. 
The  work  reflects  the  dignified  and  scholarly  attainments 
of  the  ruler,  but  is  identified  as  belonging  to  his  reign  only 
by  minor  individualities  in  the  decorative  detail. 

In  this  country  these  individualities  of  Henry  IV.  archi- 
tecture may  be  discovered  by  the  student  among  the  older 
mansions  of  the  older  cities,  but  their  differentiation  is  too 
slight  to  warrant  an  investigation  on  our  part  at  this  time. 

Henry  was  assassinated  in  the  streets  of  Paris  in  1610, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  wife,  Marie  de  Medicis,  as  re- 
gent for  young  Louis  XIII.  Under  the  weak  hand  of  the 
woman  all  the  careful  building  of  Henry  fell  to  the  ground, 
and  France  was  again  in  political  chaos.  Even  after  the 
young  Louis  made  himself  king  at  the  age  of  seventeen 
matters  were  no  better,  nor  were  anything  like  normal  con- 
ditions restored  until  the  brilliant  and  astute  Cardinal 
Richelieu  got  the  reins  of  power  in  his  hands  and  began 
an  administration  much  like  that  of  Henry  IV.  Richelieu 
again  placed  France  in  the  position  of  dictatorship  over 
Europe,  and  he  built  up  his  country  to  his  own  honor  and 
glory.  This  wonderful  statesman  was  as  keen  as  Henry 
in  his  encouragement  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  and  archi- 
tecture began  an  auspicious  activity.  The  period  of  study 
and  formulation  which  marked  Henry's  reign  now  began 
to  bear  fruit.  Not  a  great  many  important  buildings  were 
begun,  but  the  architecture  of  the  period  shows  a  new 
sureness  of  grasp,  a  reverence  and  appreciation  of  classic 
tradition,  and  a  certain  dignified  beauty  that  is  a  delight 

216 


o 

o 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

to  modern  students,  and  was  lacking  in  the  earlier  period 
of  transition. 

The  composition  differs  slightly,  however,  from  that 
immediately  following  it,  until  during  the  long  reign  of 
the  "Grand  Monarch,"  Louis  XIV.,  the  high  point  is 
reached,  and  we  hegin  the  downward  glide  in  idealism, 
and  in  inventive  power,  toward  chaos  and  the  age  of  un- 
reason. 

Remember  that  the  method  of  classifying  styles  of  archi- 
tecture has  changed,  and  we  now  have  not  only  the  names 
of  the  ruling  monarchs  used  to  designate  successive  styles, 
but  also  the  personal  influence  of  the  king  exercised  upon 
the  architecture  of  his  reign.  It  follows  naturally  that  the 
influence  of  a  king  who  reigns  for  seventy-two  years  is 
greater  and  more  solidifying  than  that  of  one  whose  rule 
is  of  briefer  duration.  For  this  reason,  the  Renaissance 
must  be  considered  as  a  whole,  the  artistic  conscience 
yielding  only  slightly  to  the  dominant  taste  of  the  court 
and  changes  in  type  varying  according  to  the  length  of  the 
reign.  That  is  why  it  is  frequently  impossible  to  classify 
buildings  except  by  the  dates  of  their  creation. 

This  second  period,  which  I  begin  arbitrarily  with  the 
death  of  Henry  IV.,  in  1610,  ends  logically  and  inevitably 
in  1774  with  the  execution  of  Louis  XVI.  and  the  down- 
fall of  the  monarchic  rule  of  France.  It  therefore  extends 
through  a  period  of  one  hundred  and  sixty-four  years,  and 
includes  the  reigns  of  Louis  XIII. ,  XIV.,  XV.,  and  XVI. 

Richelieu  and  Louis  XIII.  died  within  a  few  months 
of  each  other.  Anne  of  Austria  became  queen-regent  for 
the  young  Louis,  and  her  adviser  and  confidante  was  the 
scheming  Cardinal  Mazarin,  who  by  good-fortune  and  his 
own  adroitness  was  made  prime  minister,  and  kept  the 

218 


FIG.    QI — -DOORWAY    AT    VKRSAILLKS    (LOUIS    XIV.) 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

nation  in  his  grasp  until  his  death.  In  power  Mazarin 
was  a  second  Richelieu,  but  the  latter  was  a  patriot  and 
played  for  the  greatness  of  France.  Mazarin  played  for 
personal  power  and  for  his  pocket.  Louis  XIV.,  growing 
up  under  this  influence,  was  unable  to  dominate  it,  but  on 
Mazarin's  death,  in  1661,  he  rejoiced  openly,  and,  to  the 
astonishment  of  the  politicians,  took  unto  himself  the  com- 
mand of  the  nation,  which  he  ruled  strongly,  if  arrogantly, 
and  without  ministers,  for  more  than  half  a  century. 

Mazarin,  though  he  died  a  multi-millionaire  at  the 
expense  of  the  state,  accomplished  important  things  for 
France  that  must  be  considered  in  reviewing  the  political 
conditions  which  helped  to  mold  the  architecture  of  the 
reign.  He  signed  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  in  1648,  which 
closed  the  religious  revolution,  giving  the  Protestants  a 
measure  of  political  privilege,  and  he  also  kept  the  fiery 
young  king  in  control  during  his  salad  years. 

Louis,  however,  soon  proved  himself  an  astute  as  well 
as  a  self-willed  ruler.  He  concluded  a  peace  with  Spain 
that  gave  two  new  provinces  to  France  and  reduced  the 
Spanish  kingdom  to  second  place,  he  himself  taking  and 
holding  the  dictatorship  of  Kurope.  Trade  revived  in 
consequence,  ships  were  built  for  war  and  for  trade  with 
the  New  World,  and  the  manufacture  of  fine  textiles  and 
glass  developed.  The  arts  and  sciences  were  not  only  pro- 
tected, but  the  notable  group  of  scientists  in  France  at  that 
time  were  brought  together  under  legal  enactment  as  the 
Institute  of  France. 

It  is  notable  of  the  Renaissance,  as  of  every  other  period 
of  history,  that  the  arts  and  sciences  respond  to  the  stimulus 
of  broad  and  vigorous  rulership.  Under  the  weak  or  self- 
ish regencies  of  the  queen  mothers  and  the  dominance  of 

220 


FRANCIS    I.   TO    LOUIS    XVI. 

the  fortune  -  seeking  Mazarin  progress  stops,  to  gather 
momentum  again  under  a  Francis  I.,  a  Henry  IV.,  and 
now  a  Louis  XIV.  Louis  went  so  far  as  to  regard  the 
state  as  his  personal  property,  the  reason  for  its  existence 
the  aggrandizement  of  his  personal  glory.  His  court  was 
one  of  the  most  magnificent  in  history,  the  pomp  and  dis- 
play beyond  the  dreams  of  his  predecessors. 

But  if  Louis  was  strong  and  proud,  he  was  also  fool- 
hardy and  reckless,  and  it  was  only  his  extraordinarily 
long  reign  of  seventy-two  years  that  permitted  him  to 
accomplish  as  much  as  he  did.  For  instance,  he  allowed 
that  pious  little  hypocrite,  Madame  de  Maintenon,  to 
coax  him  into  recalling  the  Edict  of  Nantes  with  which 
Henry  IV.  had  secured  religious  freedom  to  the  people. 
^Vs  a  result  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  million  craftsmen  and 
skilled  artisans,  the  producing  and,  to  a  large  extent,  the 
thinking  men  of  the  nation,  were  driven  into  exile,  greatly 
impoverishing  France  on  her  productive  side. 

Louis  finally  found  himself  at  war  with  the  entire  con- 
tinent of  Europe  consolidated  against  him,  and  that  noth- 
ing worse  happened  than  the  loss  of  nearly  all  the  Ameri- 
can possessions  is  remarkable.  Meanwhile,  in  spite  of 
the  continual  turmoil  and  the  frightful  expense  of  the 
wars,  this  monarch  found  time  and  means  to  indulge  his 
fad  for  beautifying  the  country  and  developing  the  creative 
arts.  His  death-bed  offering  to  his  small  son,  who  was 
to  become  Louis  XV.,  was:  "Do  not  imitate  me  in  my 
taste  for  building  or  my  love  for  war." 

The  most  costly  and  magnificent  of  his  constructions 
is  the  palace  at  Versailles  (Fig.  90),  on  which  he  spent 
great  sums,  and  in  which  he  housed  the  nobility,  the 
wit,  and  the  artist  of  France.  Under  him  Jules  Hardouin 

221 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

Mansart  created  and  embellished  on  the  sturdy  founda- 
tions of  style  developed  during  the  previous  century  of 
research. 

To  Mansart,  whose  name  is  familiar  to  us  as  a  form  of 
roof  which  we  to-day  know  well  though  sorrowfully,  is 
largely  due  the  glory  of  Versailles.  This  place  is  worthy 
of  some  study.  The  various  parts  of  the  composition  are 
"tied  together"  horizontally  with  broad  bands  or  belt 
courses  and  vertically  by  tall  pilasters  innocent  of  orna- 
mentation except  in  the  cap. 

Ornament  was  not  reduced  as  it  was  under  Henry  IV., 
nor  was  it  used  in  the  lavish  fashion  of  Francis  I.  It 
has  now  become  thoughtful  and  reserved.  Under  due 
observance  of  the  laws  of  proportion  and  contrast,  decora- 
tion is  concentrated  so  as  to  secure  for  itself  the  most 
telling  advantage,  and  at  the  same  time  to  give  most 
value  to  the  plain  surface. 

The  curious  influence  which  has  been  growing  through- 
out this  whole  period,  and  which  came  to  full  blossom  in 
the  lavishly  ornate  rococco  of  Louis  XV.,  is  apparent  in 
the  free  and  playful  twisting  and  curving  of  moldings. 
There  is  evident  restraint,  however,  but  without  the  mas- 
culine strength  shown  in  the  parallel  development  in 
northern  Italy  and  in  Rome. 

Manners  seem  to  have  been  more  important  than 
morals  in  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.  The  social  refine- 
ments were  carried  to  a  point  of  extreme  cultivation  and 
covered  the  undercurrent  of  loose  living  that  permeated 
the  court  and  the  nobility.  An  observance  of  decorum 
was  rigidly  exacted.  The  magnificent  entertainments  of 
the  court  were  charming  in  their  external  aspects. 

So  we  find  in  the  architecture  of  this  reign  a  certain 

222 


FIG.     92—  DOORWAY    AT    VERSAILLES    f  LOUIS    XV.) 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

restraint  coloring  the  warm-blooded  treatment  of  decora- 
tive forms.  There  is  much  power  expressed  in  this  subtle 
reserve,  this  decorous  observance  of  the  rules,  and  it 
shows  that  neither  vagaries  and  instability  of  kings,  nor 
all  the  misfortune  of  war  or  license  of  living,  had  sufficed 
to  dull  the  edge  and  dampen  the  ardor  of  the  extraor- 
dinary Gallic  temperament.  The  France  that  we  know 
—the  France  of  the  post-Gothic  era — was  in  full  blossom. 
The  supreme  glory  of  Renaissance  invention  was  shown 
at  this  time.  The  style  did  not  end  as  the  Gothic  did, 
but  is  with  us  to  this  day.  It  even  showed  some  de- 
velopment of  importance.  But  nothing  riper,  richer, 
or  more  self-sufficient  has  come  out  of  the  entire  Renais- 
sance movement  than  the  building  done  under  the 
"Grand  Monarch." 

It  is  interesting  that  during  the  latter  part  of  the  reign 
of  Louis  XIV.  a  return  to  pure  Roman  classic  was  attempt- 
ed. The  Trianon  at  Versailles  is  an  example.  It  is  an 
arcade  of  twin  pilasters  and  columns  supporting  a  com- 
plete classic  entablature  with  arched  openings  between. 
Although  fine,  dignified,  and  in  the  best  of  taste,  it  fails 
to  express  the  spirit  of  the  time  as  the  more  local  inter- 
pretations did,  and  is  therefore  less  satisfactory  in  its 
relation  to  the  period.  Another  example  is  the  eastern 
front  of  the  Louvre,  by  Perrault,  which  is  domina- 
ted by  a  great  colonnade  that  quite  lacks  the  Gallic 
spirit. 

At  this  time  more  attention  than  ever  before  was  given 
to  the  decoration  of  interiors,  a  result  of  the  development 
of  court  ceremonial  and  elaboration  of  costume.  For 
these  magnificent  affairs  it  was  natural  that  harmonious 
architectural  backgrounds  should  be  required;  so  the 

224 


FRANCIS    I.   TO    LOUIS    XVI. 

architect  becomes  artist,  decorator,  and  furniture  designer 
as  well  as  constructor. 

The  self-restraint  that  we  observed  in  the  exterior 
decoration  of  this  time  is  also  seen  in  the  embellishment 
of  the  interiors.  Ornament  was  centred  or  grouped  with 
due  regard  to  the  value  of  plain  surfaces.  The  moldings 
that  made  lines  of  separation  between  dado,  wall,  and 
cornice  were  strengthened  and  ornamented  on  the  cor- 
ners, with  scrolls  in  place  of  the  earlier  and  more  mascu- 
line square  block,  against  which  the  panel  molding  ended 
abruptly. 

The  tapestry  decoration  of  earlier  reigns  largely  gives 
way  to  wood-panelled  walls,  frequently  finished  in  white 
and  gold.  There  is  a  nice  sense  of  contrast  and  propor- 
tion shown  in  the  treatment  of  these  interiors  which  marks 
the  advance  in  the  art.  Squares  and  circles  are  rarely 
used,  because  these  forms  lack  the  contrast  of  oblongs  and 
ovals,  and  when  they  are  used  the  geometric  line  is  in- 
geniously broken  with  ornamentation.  This  is  carried 
further  in  the  grouping  of  panels,  the  panels  of  the  dado 
being  used  horizontally,  for  instance,  and  those  of  the 
wall  vertically,  so  as  to  give  variation  in  the  mass  as  well 
as  in  the  units. 

In  the  plan  of  the  rooms  also  there  is  the  same  regard 
for  proportion  and  balance.  The  fireplace  was  placed 
in  the  middle  of  the  wall,  making  a  focal  centre,  and  was 
nchlv  ornamented  with  mirrors  and  carved  panels,  the 
sides  always  balancing.  Doorways  no  longer  appear  at 
haphazard,  but  are  designed  to  balance  a  corresponding 
door.  If  a  door  must  be  out  of  balance  it  is  made  secret, 
cutting  invisibly  through  panels  and  dadoes,  so  as  not  to 
break  the  composition. 

225 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

The  planning  of  the  interior  of  the  building  is  also 
symmetrical,  -room  balancing  room  in  equal  proportion 
of  size  or  "weight,"  even  when  it  is  necessary  to  sacrifice 
utilitarian  requirements.  This  is  in  strong  contrast  to 
the  rigid  utilitarianism  of  the  admirable  thirteenth-cen- 
tury Gothic. 

This  system  of  symmetrical  designing,  which  is  one  of 
the  keynotes  of  the  Renaissance,  has  come  down  to  us 
almost  as  unyielding  as  it  was  at  that  time.  It  applies 
to  all  architectural  ornament  from  the  balancing  of  the 
main  wings  of  a  great  building  to  the  smallest  added 
feature  of  a  delicate  molding. 

Even  more  exacting  are  these  laws  of  balance  and  pro- 
portion as  applied  to  texture  or  surface,  to  material,  to 
the  graining  of  woods,  the  intensity  and  quality  of  colors, 
the  use  of  gold  for  sharpness  and  contrast,  the  degree  of 
thinness  or  depth  of  raised  designs,  of  applied  pictures 
and  tapestries,  and  the  weight  and  openness  of  the  furni- 
ture and  accessories  of  the  room. 

These  laws  were  a  legacy  from  the  Romans,  rediscovered 
after  their  extinction  in  the  monasteries  and  the  lodges  of 
the  Freemasons.  Now  they  became  codified  through  the 
activities  of  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  or  College  of 
Architects,  and  from  mysteries  became  public  property 
of  recognized  authority. 

The  use  of  the  styles  of  Louis  XIV.,  XV.,  and  XVI.,  or 
"Ouatorze,"  "Ouinze,"  and  "Srizc,"  to  give  them  their  fa- 
miliar French  appellations,  for  furniture  and  decorations  in 
this  country  has  made  them  the  three  best-known  styles, 
by  name  at  least  (Figs.  91,  92,  93).  Most  of  the  prod- 
uct of  our  furniture  factories  is  adapted  from  this  period, 
and  a  great  majority  of  our  Renaissance  buildings  may  be 

226 


FIG.    93 — INTERIOR    OK    A    DRAWING-ROOM    (LOUIS    XVI.) 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

traced  to  a  parentage  within  these  three  reigns  in  France. 
Their  differentiation  is  rather  an  intricate  matter,  so 
intermingled  have  their  interpretations  become  under  the 
irreverent  hand  of  the  manufacturers.  Kven  the  parent 
French  products  have  so  much  in  common  that  it  would 
be  outside  the  field  of  this  book  to  give  anything  like  a 
complete  exposition  of  the  styles.  It  is  sufficient  to 
understand  the  human  characteristics  that  underlie  all 
three  and  to  define  their  essential  differences  on  this 
general  basis. 

Of  monumental  buildings  in  America  a  majority  are  in 
the  more  restrained  style  of  Louis  XVI., the  characteristics 
of  which  are  reviewed  in  the  next  chapter.  There  are,  in 
fact,  few  notable  examples  of  the  other  two,  while  of  this 
one  the  new  Public  Library  in  New  York  is  but  one  of 
the  many  striking  and  typical  examples,  designed  from 
the  book,  and  very  dry,  simply  because  the  designers  have 
failed  to  comprehend  the  human  characteristics  which  lie 
behind  the  creation  of  the  original  style. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

FROM    LOUIS    XVI.   TO    MODERN    FRANCE 


the  reign  of  Louis  XV., 
which  followed,  the  newly  form- 
ulated architectural  laws  were  not 
forgotten  or  violated,  but  were  ex- 
panded and  played  with  so  as  to 
give  considerably  wider  latitude 
in  forms.  The  life  of  the  court 
during  Louis  XV.  's  time  was  not  admirable.  The 
king  had  all  the  arrogance  of  his  father  without  his 
capacity  for  constructive  statesmanship.  The  new  Louis 
was  a  good  deal  of  a  weakling,  and  his  interest  in  the 
pleasures  of  life  seems  greatly  to  have  outweighed  his 
ambition  as  a  ruler.  The  weakness  and  vices  of  the 
monarch  were  promptly  imitated  by  his  courtiers  and 
very  plainly  reflected  in  the  architecture,  which  became 
lavish  and  ornate  rococco,  the  very  extreme  of  over-rich 
luxuriance,  the  only  salvation  being  the  fundamental  re- 
gard for  the  supporting  lines  of  proportion  which  de- 
scended from  the  previous  period  and  could  not  at  once 
be  overthrown.  Louis  XV.  reigned  for  half  a  century, 
and  his  reckless  disregard  for  the  needs  of  his  people 
precipitated  that  terrific  descent  which  ended  in  the  de- 
molition of  the  French  monarchy. 
16  229 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

His  son,  Louis  XVI.,  was  the  weak  son  of  a  weak  father, 
hut  he  suffered  for  the  sins  of  his  father  rather  than  for 
his  own  inability  to  grasp  the  immensely  difficult  situation 
he  had  fallen  heir  to.  Me  was  merely  stupid;  not  like  his 
father,  who  was  also  vicious. 

During  the  reign  of  the  fifteenth  Louis  there  was  license- 
without  restraint,  and  in  the  reign  that  followed  a  reaction 
came  which  expressed  its  protest  in  the  architecture, 
giving  us  restraint  without  license. 

The  aristocratic  and  sensitive  Marie  Antoinette,  Queen 
of  the  last  Louis  of  the  old  regime,  was  a  potent  influence 
in  the  marked  change  of  style  this  brought  about.  As 
she  cleansed  the  court  life  of  much  of  its  grossness,  so  the 
overornamentation  of  the  preceding  reign  disappeared  in 
a  refinement  of  the  Renaissance  style  that  went  even  be- 
yond the  restraint  of  Louis  XIV.'s  time.  An  example  is 
the  Petit  Trianon  in  the  garden  of  Versailles,  which  Marie 
Antoinette  built  that  she  might  play  at  pastoral  house- 
keeping. This  building  is  a  carefully  studied  return  to 
the  classic  laws,  the  ornamentation,  while  conforming  to 
the  new  school,  being  made  secondary  in  importance  to 
the  structural  lines.  This  in  itself  seems  to  be  the  instinc- 
tive response  to  any  demand  for  greater  refinement. 

The  beheading  of  Louis  XVI.  and  Marie  Antoinette  was 
the  end,  not  only  of  the  royal  family,  but  of  the  second 
great  revolution.  The  first,  you  remember,  was  religious. 
The  second  was  political.  Its  primary  cause  was  the 
arrogance  and  selfishness  of  the  nobles  and  the  king.  The 
financial  condition  of  the  kingdom  was  terrible.  The 
poor  toiled  and  suffered  to  meet  the  taxes  and  to  fill  the 
pockets  of  their  recklessly  extravagant  overlords  much  as 
they  had  done  in  the  Dark  Ages.  Revolution  broke  out, 

230 


LOUIS    XVI.   TO    MODERN    FRANCE 

and  there  was  no  power  which  could  control  it,  either  by 
force  or  by  the  resolute  correction  of  the  evils  that  had 
caused  it.  So  France  fell  from  her  high  estate  among  the 
nations.  She  became  a  lesser  power.  The  old  aristoc- 
racy— which,  bad  as  it  had  been,  was  a  real  aristocracy 
— the  old  traditions  were  swept  away.  Many  of  them, 
indeed,  could  well  face  oblivion,  but  the  fine  arts  must 
suffer  tor  a  time. 

With  all  its  ferocious  brutality,  the  French  Revolution 
was  a  step  forward  in  the  march  of  civilization  toward 
political  freedom.  It  was,  in  fact,  an  inevitable  result  of 
the  selfishness  of  the  Bourbons  and  the  nobility,  who  had 
all  the  vices  and  few  of  the  virtues  of  their  ancestors,  the 
old  feudal  lords. 

It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  so  destructive  a  change 
would  immediately  bear  fine  fruits  in  architecture,  for  it 
was  not  the  inspiration  of  a  new  ideal  that  brought  it 
about,  but  a  ferocious  revolt  against  unbearable  condi- 
tions. If  the  first  empire  could  have  continued  under 
strong  leaders  for  the  ensuing  century,  something  of  great- 
ness might  have  been  expected;  but  on  the  contrary,  as 
we  know,  France  went  from  one  unsettled  rule  to  another 
without  one  dominating  personality  except  Napoleon's, 
until  in  1871  she  became  a  republic  and  settled  down  to 
the  active  national  life  she  is  now  leading. 

With  the  disappearance  of  the  old  aristocracy  a  new 
one  came  into  existence.  It  consisted  of  Napoleon's 
favorites — men  who,  for  the  most  part,  had  made  quickly 
the  wealth  and  position  which  gave  them  the  name  of 
nouveaux  riches.  Wanting  as  much  of  the  grandeur  of 
royalty  as  they  could  get,  and  a  little  more  than  the  old 
nobility  had,  they  sought  to  outdo  the  elegance  of  the 

231 


HOW    TO    KNOW   ARCHITECTURE 

Bourbon  reigns.  The  chief  of  the  few  remaining  archi- 
tects of  the  Renaissance,  Percier  and  Fontaine,  were 
called  upon  to  do  honor  to  the  mushroom  nobility  and 
to  the  emperor,  and  out  of  the  shreds  and  patches  of  the 
Renaissance  in  France  and  in  Rome  they  evolved  the 
style  called  Empire. 

His  nonvean  nche  nobility  desired  to  please  or  flatter 
Napoleon,  and  there  must  have  been  much  straining  Of 
artistic  imaginations  to  fit  decorative  forms  to  this  cold 
and  austere  big  little  man  whose  character  was  so  strongly 
in  contrast  with  his  kingly  and  pleasure-loving  predeces- 
sors. In  some  of  the  early  work  there  are  indications  of 
Egyptian  decorative  forms,  in  flattering  recognition  of  his 
expedition  into  Africa,  but  these  were  incongruous  and 
disappeared.  The  Empire  style  which  was  evolved  was 
comparatively  cold  and  formal  as  to  design,  though  su- 
premely rich  in  color  and  texture.  There  is,  for  instance, 
much  use  of  mahogany  with  flush  panels,  crotch-veneered, 
with  the  natural  wood  markings,  and  with  applied  orna- 
ments of  gold  and  brass.  None  of  it  rings  true  except 
to  the  curious  social  condition  of  the  times,  a  condition 
dominated  by  a  single  individual  who  was  least  of  any- 
thing an  artist.  This  style  shows  the  Greek  forms  in  its 
methods  of  decoration  and  ornamentation. 

The  very  obvious  and  unskilful  sort  of  personal  flattery 
involved  in  the  creation  of  this  style  is  here  seen  for  the 
first  time,  but  it  finds  an  odd  contemporary  counterpart 
in  our  own  country  in  the  coarse  and  unstudied  imitation 
of  "Empire"  undertaken  during  the  first  quarter  of  the  last 
century  as  a  tribute  to  the  martial  and  financial  assistance 
France  at  that  time  gave  the  United  States.  Examples  are 
still  in  existence  amongthe  old  houses  of  our  sea-coast  cities. 

232 


LOUIS   XVI.  TO   MODERN    FRANCE 

After  Napoleon  came  the  Restoration  with  the  three 
successive  kings:  Louis  XVIIL,  brother  of  Louis  XVI., 
Charles  X.,  and  Louis  Philippe,  Duke  of  Orleans.  These 
men  were  unfitted  in  temperament,  training,  or  mental 
equipment  for  ruling  anything,  and  it  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pected that  they  should  make  any  impression  on  the  great 
country  of  France,  except  to  keep  it  by  their  weakness 
and  cowardice  in  a  state  of  continual  and  paralyzing  un- 
certainty. Napoleon  III.,  with  his  second  Empire,  was 
little  if  any  better.  During  all  this  time  architecture 
was  practically  non-existent.  Good  work  could  not  be 
done  under  such  unsettled  and  dispirited  conditions.  The 
only  development  of  any  sort  was  a  sporadic  classic 
revival  called  "Neo-Grec,"  which  had  a  brief  and  com- 
paratively insignificant  existence  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century. 

This  entire  term  of  years,  from  the  overthrow  of  Na- 
poleon in  1815  to  the  end  of  the  Second  Empire  in  1871, 
might  be  called  appropriately  the  black-walnut-and- 
slippery-hair-cloth  period,  giving  us  the  wax-fruit-and- 
marble-top  style,  the  abominations  of  which  are  familiar  to 
us  on  account  of  its  acceptance  in  this  country.  Over  this 
period  in  France  I  prefer  to  draw  a  veil.  Its  significance 
is  wholly  negative,  and  it  merely  gives  me  the  opportunity 
to  say  once  again  that  good  and  lasting  architectural  style 
cannot  develop  without  either  a  powerful  and  inspiring 
personality  at  the  head  of  the  state,  a  strong  idealism,  or 
a  great  movement  of  national  pride. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  present  republic,  France 
has  made  much  real  progress  in  the  arts  and  sciences, 
continuing,  as  in  the  old  days,  to  supply  the  entire  world 
with  intellectual  ideas.  This  remarkable  nation  still  holds 

233 


HOW   TO    KNOW   ARCHITECTURE 

the  primacy  in  the  world  of  intellect  discovered  by  her  at 
the  beginning  of  the  Renaissance  period.  The  archi- 
tectural laws  have  been  classified,  and  the  reasons  why  in 
design  and  composition  are  scientifically  stated  and  recog- 
nized as  never  before,  until  to-day  there  are  few  schools 
in  the  world  equal  to  the  French  School  of  Fine  Arts. 
There  are  strong  indications  of  a  new  rise  toward  a  com- 
plete and  recognized  tvpe,  unless  further  disturbances 
should  destroy  the  present  efficient  government  by  the 
people  for  the  good  of  the  nation. 

Before  leaving  France  and  the  Renaissance  I  want  you 
to  take  with  me  a  unique  bird's-eye  view  of  the  whole 
Renaissance  period.  Tt  is  offered  in  the  Louvre  of  Paris. 
This  magnificent  building,  or  group  of  buildings,  as  it 
now  stands,  has  been  under  construction  or  reconstruction 
from  the  time  of  Francis  I.  (1546),  and  every  phase  of 
Renaissance  development  is  recorded  in  its  walls.  A 
volume  might  easily  be  written  with  this  building  as  the 
theme,  and  the  story  would  be  of  unflagging  interest.  We 
shall,  however,  very  briefly  sketch  its  history,  bearing  in 
mind  that  this  is  to  be  in  the  nature  of  a  recapitulation  of 
our  studies  of  Renaissance  progress  (Fig.  94). 

The  original  Louvre  was  built  during  the  thirteenth 
century  under  Philip  Augustus.  Its  architecture  was 
Military  Gothic,  for  it  was,  in  fact,  a  fortress  and  prison, 
with  many  round  towers  and  tiny  windows  and  large  and 
undecorated  wall  surfaces.  Some  improvements  and  em- 
bellishments were  added  by  Raimond  du  Temple,  archi- 
tect for  Charles  V.,  in  1364;  but  the  entire  period  of  the 
Flamboyant  left  the  gloomy  old  castle  practically  un- 
touched. 

When  Francis  I.  returned  from  his  captivity  in  Madrid 

234 


FIG.    94 — THE    LOUVRE    OF    PHILIP    AUGUSTUS 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

to  take  up  his  kingly  residence  in  Paris,  he  found  the 
dismal  palace  quite  unsuited  to  the  requirements  of  en- 
tertaining other  monarchs  in  royal  splendor,  and  its  archi- 
tecture quite  out  of  fashion.  He  planned  the  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  entire  building,  and  began  the  west  wing.  This 
had  the  effect  of  bringing  architects  and  artists  of  all 
sorts  from  Italy  to  Paris,  among  them  the  great  Benvenuto 
Cellini,  and  the  art  of  the  ancients  as  interpreted  by  the 
Italians  became  the  fashion.  In  1546  Francis  appointed 
Pierre  Lescot,  a  man  of  the  new  school,  architect  of  the 
Louvre,  and  this  began  the  real  work  of  reconstruction. 

Francis  died  only  a  few  months  after  the  appointment 
of  Lescot,  one  of  the  deaths  we  regret  most  in  the  history 
of  architecture.  His  buildings  at  Blois  and  Chambord 
have  such  delicacy  and  charm,  strongly  suggesting  the 
joy  of  both  architect  and  builder  in  the  new  method  of 
expression,  and  the  housing  of  a  witty  and  brilliant 
court,  that  we  wish  he  had  had  time  to  fulfil  his  desire 
for  a  new  Louvre.  What  different  type  might  have 
been  developed  if  this  enlightened  monarch  had  been 
allowed  to  play  out  the  game  with  Lescot  in  the  heart 
of  the  gay  French  capital  we  cannot  guess,  but  we  feel 
sure  it  would  have  been  very  well  worth  while.  As  it 
was,  Francis  had  only  the  glory  of  initiating  the  plan, 
and  his  successor,  Henry  II.,  carried  on  the  work  with 
Lescot,  completing  the  west  wing. 

Under  Henry  III.,  Metezeau  was  appointed  architect, 
in  1578,  and  under  Henry  IV.,  Ducerceau  followed  him. 
These  men  built  the  little  gallery  and  the  grand  gallery 
which  run  along  the  banks  of  the  Seine  from  the  southwest 
corner  of  the  Louvre  proper  toward  the  Tuileries. 

Louis  XIII.,  with  Le  Mercier  as  architect,  began,  in 

236 


FIG.    95— A    PAVILION    OF    THF    MOUKKN    LOUVRE 


HOW    TO     KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

1624,  on  the  west  wing,  continuing  it  to  the  northwest  cor- 
ner and  finishing  part  of  the  north  wing.  Le  Mercier  was 
succeeded  by  Le  Vau  in  1660,  under  Louis  XIV.,  and  com- 
pleted the  square.  Louis,  with  Perrault,  later  widened 
the  east  and  south  wings  covering  the  facades  already 
built.  Perrault's  tame  colonnade  on  the  east  was  con- 
structed on  ground  formerly  occupied  by  the  Hotel  de 
Bourbon. 

During  the  first  empire  Percier  and  Fontaine,  architects 
for  the  new  regime,  built  the  wing  on  the  Rue  de  Rivoli 
from  the  Tuileries,  beginning  in  1806,  and  this  was  com- 
pleted to  the  Louvre  proper  under  Napoleon  III.  by  Vis- 
conti  and  Lefeul  in  1852  (Fig.  95). 

This  brief  sketch  gives  an  idea  of  how  a  long  succession 
of  minds  contributed  to  the  making  of  this  Renaissance 
masterpiece,  each  building  in  his  own  style,  but  each  in- 
fluenced at  least  a  little  by  his  predecessors,  and  a  great 
deal  by  the  art  of  his  own  generation.  That  this  build- 
ing, the  construction  of  which  lasted  through  three  hun- 
dred years,  is  practically  a  consistent  whole  while  illustrat- 
ing every  phase  of  Renaissance  development,  is  further 
proof  of  my  premise  that  in  this  time  there  was  little  real 
invention  in  style.  Instead,  there  were  adjustment  and 
readjustment  of  superimposed  orders  and  of  arcades,  new 
treatments  of  column  and  pier-spacing,  and  of  applied 
ornamentation,  all  under  the  influence  of  the  parallel  de- 
velopments in  Rome.  It  is  aptly  called  the  Intellectual 
period. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

PARALLEL    DEVELOPMENTS    IN    ENGLAND 

[NGLAND'S  architectural  progress  in 
the  development  of  styles  is  dependent 
to  a  great  extent  on  the  creative  power 
of  the  Franks.  It  is  necessary,  how- 
ever, that  we  should  know  something 
of  the  history  of  this  country  if  we 
would  appreciate  clearly  the  signifi- 
cance of  periods  which  have  come  to  us  in  America  by 
way  of  England. 

The  dominant  characteristic  of  British  architecture — 
if  there  is  one — is  its  Northern  stolidity,  domesticity,  and 
lack  of  playful  imagination.  The  British  and  the  French 
people  of  to-day,  with  their  widely  divergent  tempera- 
ments, reflect  the  difference  in  the  entire  architectural 
output  of  the  two  nations.  The  student  should  not,  how- 
ever, express  personal  preference  for  this  or  that,  but 
must  recognize  in  each  case  the  elements  of  suitability, 
of  strength,  and  of  legality.  Architecture,  in  other  words, 
is  scientific,  and  architectural  criticism  must  be  a  matter 
of  scientific  analysis  and  not  of  personal  preference. 

It  is  therefore  necessary  to  recognize  in  early  British 
architecture  a  suitability  to  the  cold  North  country,  to 
the  comparatively  puritanic  and  domestic  people,  to  a 

239 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

certain  rugged  strength,  and  to  a  more  mgderate  adherence 
to  traditions.  On  the  other  hand,  it  must  he  borne  in 
mind  that  all  English  styles  were  more  or  less  adaptations, 
and  for  the  most  part  had  been  drawn  from  the  French, 
who  had  created  in  quite  another  vein. 

With  the  architecture  of  the  Romans  in  England  we 
need  not  interest  ourselves,  as  it  had  no  direct  effect  on 
the  growth  of  style,  except  as  it  was  translated  by  way 
of  the  Franks.  It  is  interesting,  however,  to  remem- 
ber that  the  high  civilization  of  this  occupation,  with  the 
usual  Roman  baths,  temples,  and  paved  streets,  had  dis- 
appeared without  leaving  a  trace  in  the  architecture  that 
followed.  When  Constantine  turned  his  eyes  toward  the 
extreme  East  it  meant  only  one  thing  for  this  cold  west- 
ern island.  She  was  to  be  given  up  to  the  brutality  and 
ignorance  of  the  Northern  barbarians,  who  compelled  a 
reversion  to  original  savagery. 

Under  the  present  city  of  London  are  the  ruins  of  the 
old  Roman  city,  which,  judging  from  the  few  discoveries 
made  by  excavations,  must  have  been  as  highly  developed 
as  the  cities  of  Italy.  During  the  period  which  followed 
the  departure  of  the  Romans,  from  the  middle  of  the  fifth 
century  to  the  Norman  Conquest — a  period  of  about  six 
hundred  years — the  country  made  little  or  no  progress  in 
the  arts  and  sciences.  The  intense  struggle  for  life  which 
was  constantly  going  on  between  the  natives  and  the 
invaders  created  a  condition  which  was  destructive  of 
all  real  progress.  Here,  in  the  new  West,  Christians  were 
fighting  for  their  very  existence  against  the  barbarians  of 
the  North,  continually  calling  on  Rome  for  help.  Rome 
wras  at  this  time  building  a  new  empire  in  the  East,  and 
she  was  no  more  helpful  to  these  far  western  islands  than 

240 


FIG.  96 CANTERBURY  CATHKDRAL  (KARI.Y  NORMAN  AND  LATE 

GOTHIC) 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

she  was  in  later  days,  when  the  Christians  of  the  East 
called  on  her  for  help  against  the  Tatar  Turks. 

These  Western  people  struggled  on  hopelessly,  and  final- 
ly conquered  for  themselves  and  for  their  idealism.  Had 
Rome  responded  to  this  cry  from  the  West,  the  archi- 
tectural language  would  have  had  for  us  a  far  more 
interesting  story,  and  in  the  later  days,  when  the  Greek 
Church  offered,  as  a  reward  for  help,  the  giving  up  of  her 
separate  identity,  another  story,  perhaps  not  so  interest- 
ing, would  have  been  given  us  from  the  East. 

As  the  jutes  and  the  Saxon  people  came  over,  they 
destroyed  the  Roman  cities,  preferring  to  live  in  the  open 
country,  and  neither  they  nor  their  successors  have  left 
more  than  a  few  feeble  marks  on  the  pages  of  style  his- 
tory— the  knowledge  of  column  and  arch  coming  to  them 
by  way  of  the  North  through  a  medium  which  was  nor  in 
the  direct  line  of  growth. 

When  William  the  Norman  took  possession  of  Eng- 
land in  1066,  he  found  a  type  utterly  unlike  the  keen  and 
energetic  Frank.  On  the  contrary,  though  the  people 
were  of  his  own  breed,  they  were  without  the  fierce  en- 
ergy of  the  pure  Norman.  As  the  Normans  were  not 
creative,  we  can  expect,  under  these  conditions  in  England, 
only  borrowings  and  very  literal  adaptations.  William 
and  his  wife,  Matilda,  the  lady  of  the  Bayeux  tapestries, 
had  built  in  Caen  the  two  Norman  churches — St.  Stephen, 
or  the  Abbaye-aux-Hommes,  and  the  Abbaye-aux-Dames 
— to  the  Trinity,  at  the  period  of  the  invasion,  and  this 
architecture  was  given  to  the  English. 

It  was,  however,  a  distinct  advance  when  they  carried 
over  the  knowledge  of  larger  round-arched  buildings,  bor- 
rowed from  the  Romanesque  and  impregnated  with  the 

242 


FIG.    97 — INTERIOR   Ol-    WESTMINSTER   ABBEY 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

symbols  of  Eastern  mysticism.  They  built  on  the  ruins  and 
with  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  buildings  the  Anglo-Saxons 
had  destroyed,  exactly  as  the  people  of  southern  France 
had  done  when  the  Romanesque  came  into  being.  The 
Normans  built  much,  but  they  were  adapters  in  England, 
not  originators.  When  they  united  with  the  creative 
Franks  they  did  great  things  for  them;  but  when  they 
fell  among  the  architecturally  barren  Anglo-Saxons,  they 
perforce  fell  back  upon  the  ideas  they  had  brought  with 
them  from  Normandy.  The  characteristics  are  boldness 
and  massiveness.  The  columns  are  round  and  fat  with 
chunky  block  caps  somewhat  in  the  Romanesque  manner, 
but,  unlike  the  Romanesque,  lacking  in  romance.  There 
are  several  decorated  Norman  moldings,  usually  simple 
geometric  forms  rather  crudely  and  heavily  cut,  known 
as  bolt-heads,  chevrons,  wave  pattern,  and  the  simpler  fret. 

While  the  Gothic  in  England  is  usually  divided  into 
sections,  it  has  general  characteristics  which  vary  slightly, 
and  many  of  the  differences  in  detail  are  difficult  to  deter- 
mine. In  our  own  day  we  will  find,  as  we  do  in  all  of  the 
other  styles  or  periods  of  the  classic  and  Renaissance,  a 
mixing  of  forms  or  of  characteristic  parts  or  details  of 
each  period.  Clearly  a  result  of  too  much  library  and  of 
too  little  invention. 

The  first  period  is  called  by  the  bibliomancies  "Early 
English."  It  corresponds  in  growth  with  the  finished 
twelfth-century  Gothic  of  France,  and  is  about  one  hun- 
dred years  behind  its  parallel  in  France. 

It  shows  the  development  of  the  uninterrupted  Norman 
intelligence,  and  in  some  measure  a  progression  of  the 
Norman  traditions.  The  arches  are  narrow  at  the  spring, 
and  are  high  and  sharply  pointed;  for  this  reason  it 

244 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

is  frequently  called  Lancet  Gothic.  The  columns  are 
slender  in  proportion  to  the  height,  and  are  grouped 
around  a  central  part.  The  form  of  the  arch  will  he  a 
sure  indication  of  the  gradual  return  to  the  true  post- 
and-lintel  form  of  construction. 

The  steep,  lancet-shaped  arch  is  characteristic  of  the 
Early  P^nglish,  while  the  Tudor,  which  followed,  ante- 
dating the  transition  to  the  classic,  has  an  arch  which  is 
almost  flat. 

The  Early  English  prevailed  during  the  reigns  of  John, 
Henry  III.,  and  Edward  I.,  when  such  cathedrals  as  Salis- 
bury, the  only  unmixed  example,  and  the  transepts  of 
York,  the  tower  and  west  front  of  Wells,  and  the  pres- 
bytery of  Ely  were  constructed — in  time  covering  the  en- 
tire thirteenth  century. 

The  decorated  Gothic  continues  the  style  during  the  first 
seventy-five  years  of  the  fourteenth  century,  witli  devel- 
opments in  the  foliation  and  method  of  grouping  columns. 
The  next  distinguished  characteristic,  however,  is  in  the 
opening  up  of  the  arch,  and  in  the  bluntness  of  the  apex 
or  point,  rather  a  duller  form  than  that  of  the  earlier  or 
lancet  type  (Figs.  96,  97,  98,  99). 

The  wars  of  the  rival  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster 
continue  during  this  period,  but  have  little  effect  on  the 
building  of  churches. 

This  style  slipped  almost  imperceptibly  into  a  later 
variation  which  continued  in  time  for  a  hundred  years 
during  the  early  three-quarters  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
It  it  called  the  Perpendicular,  and  marks  the  first  radical 
departure  from  French  habit  and  the  French  line  of 
growth.  Contemporaneously  with  this  style  the  French 
were  growing  lavish  and  romantic  with  their  aptly  named 

246 


PARALLEL  DEVELOPMENTS    IN   ENGLAND 

Flamboyant.  England  had  become  economical  and  pru- 
dish, and  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  the  blandishments  of  French 
gayety.  Therefore,  instead  of  yielding  to  the  temptation 
of  double  curves  and  lavish  playfulness,  she  became  more 
primly  upright  than  ever.  She  panelled  her  structures, 
accentuating  the  height,  and  in  every  possible  way  ac- 
cepted the  virtuous  and  unyielding  straight  vertical  lines. 
She  did  not  add  greatly  thereby  to  the  sum  total  of  the 
world's  architectural  inheritance. 

The  ruling  kings  of  this  period  were  Edward  I.,  Edward 
II.,  Edward  III.,  Richard  II.,  Henry  IV.,  Henry  V.,  and 
Henry  VI.,  and  such  examples  as  the  nave  and  choir  and 
the  western  front  of  York,  the  nave  and  choir  at  Exeter, 
and  the  entire  cathedral  at  Litchfield  were  created. 

The  Perpendicular  Gothic  ended  with  the  closing  of 
the  War  of  the  Roses,  in  1485.  The  war  between  the  two 
great  feudal  families  of  England,  and  its  end  by  marriage, 
closed  the  history  of  feudalism  on  the  island,  and  placed 
a  new  family,  the  Tudors,  on  the  throne.  Thus  began 
the  architectural  period  called  Tudor  Gothic.  Caxton 
had  introduced  printing  into  England  in  1476,  and  this 
helped  somewhat  the  introduction  of  new  ideas.  The  first 
Tudor  King  was  Henry  VII.,  whose  comparatively  peace- 
ful reign,  coupled  with  commercial  prosperity,  began  a 
new  era  in  building.  Henry  VIII. — he  of  the  six  wives 
— suppressed  the  monasteries,  acquiring  some  wealth  in 
the  process,  and  also  established  the  Church  of  England. 
The  Tudor  style  seems  to  represent  a  new  influx  of  for- 
eign influence,  though  no  foreign  style  was  adopted  in- 
tact. Such  distinctive  social  conditions  had  developed  in 
England  that  none  of  the  European  forms  fitted.  Kng- 
land  was  becoming  a  nation  of  homes,  the  domestic  idea 

247 


dominating.  In  England  a  man  built  his  best  for  his 
family,  in  France  for  his  mistress.  The  Tudor  Gothic 
is,  therefore,  expressed  chiefly  in  manor-houses — the  do- 
mestic ideal.  The  Tudor  is  substantial,  rather  dignified, 
and  British  to  the  ridge-pole.  The  arch  is  pointed,  but 
the  lines  are  severely  straight  and  flattened,  except  at  the 
spring,  which  is  slightly  curved.  The  half-timber  treat- 
ment, in  which  the  great  beams  are  exposed  and  the  inter- 
stices filled  with  brick  and  stucco,  began  to  attain  the 
popularity  which  afterward  identified  it  almost  exclusively 
with  English  domestic  architecture. 

Queen  Elizabeth,  the  last  of  the  Tudors,  ascended  the 
throne  in  1558,  when  the  Reformation  had  succeeded  in 
unseating  the  Roman  Church,  and  in  so  doing  destroyed 
or  mutilated  not  only  the  old  tradition,  but  also  the  archi- 
tectural expressions  of  these  traditions.  "Ruins  every- 
where, ruins  of  cloisters,  halls,  dormitories,  courts,  and 
chapels  and  churches  —  altar-pieces,  canopies,  statues, 
painted  windows,  and  graven  fonts." 

This  was  the  era  of  England's  greatness;  new  worlds 
were  being  discovered,  which  developed  the  trade  of  the 
country  tremendously,  and  the  discovery  of  the  new  ideal 
in  the  Reformation  seemed  to  have  had  a  most  bewilder- 
ing result  on  the  literature  and  arts  of  the  time.  The 
lifting  of  this  foreign  control  of  religious  belief  seemed  to 
show  itself  in  the  attitude  of  the  creative  group,  who,  be- 
cause of  loyalty  to  the  reformed  religion,  associated  them- 
selves with  the  reformers  of  northern  Europe.  You  re- 
member that  the  Teutonic  people  had  the  honor  of  this 
one  of  the  three  great  discoveries,  and  because  of  this  we 
see  the  English  architects  turning  toward  these  Northern 
nations  for  inspiration.  The  wealth  which  came  from  the 

248 


FIG.    99 — MODERN    TRANSLATION    OF    LATE    GOTHIC 


HOW   TO    KNOW   ARCHITECTURE 

increased  trade,  and  the  loot  from  the  Spanish  Main,  gave 
England  the  means  to  express  herself  with  far  more  luxuri- 
ousness  than  could  the  little  German  princelets. 

The  style  of  this  period  is  approaching  the  new  classic 
or  Renaissance,  with  a  strong  infusion  of  what  must  be 
called  Flemish  or  Easterling,  from  the  country  of  the  Dutch 
traders  and  jewel  merchants.  These  were  a  curious  type 
of  people,  who  had  a  strain  of  the  Eastern  Franks  mingled 
with  that  of  the  West.  Our  word  "sterling,"  which  is 
used  as  a  mark  of  quality,  is  derived  from  one  of  the 
names  given  to  this  race  of  merchants  and  traders. 

We  get  also  the  decoration  of  the  belts  and  bands,  the 
geometric  spots  with  facets  inserted  in  the  bands,  and  the 
curly  edged  panels  which  marks  Elizabethan  architecture 
as  it  has  marked  the  French  of  Francis  I.  as  a  transition. 

It  is  not  good  architecture,  in  the  sense  that  it  is  hardly 
honest  and  somewhat  noisy;  but  it  serves  its  purpose  as 
a  direct  expression  of  a  people  who  were  wavering  and 
uncertain,  and  trying  out  a  new  and  strange  method  with- 
out the  powerful  stimulant  of  strong  and  national  tradition. 

Some  of  this  applied  and  unnatural  ornamentation  seems 
to  have  arrived  in  the  north  of  Europe  by  way  of  the 
Russian  and  Danube  trade  routes,  from  old  Byzantium, 
as  it  shows  itself  throughout  the  North  countries,  coloring 
the  crude  expression  of  these  Northern  people  in  a  curious 
manner. 

Hakluyt  has  an  interesting  chapter  wherein  one  An- 
thony Jenkinson  writes  of  his  trials  and  tribulations  while 
journeying  to  the  east  on  a  trade  mission  for  good  Oueen 
Bess.  His  route  lay,  by  way  of  Moscow  and  the  Caspian 
Sea,  over  the  old  trade  routes,  to  the  court  of  the  "  Sol- 
tan,"  where  a  high  tariff  was  demanded  for  his  own  head, 

250 


PARALLEL  DEVELOPMENTS   IN   ENGLAND 

for  his  camels  and  horses,  and  for  trade  privileges.  By 
this  route  and  in  this  fashion  the  crude  and  unlearned 
trader  became  the  translator  of  symbols  with  no  compre- 
hension of  the  tradition  which  created  them.  The  Eliza- 
bethan decorator  plastered  them  at  pleasure  on  column 
and  entablature,  on  plain  walls,  and  in  open  spaces 
until  space  failed  him,  and  we  have  the  Elizabethan 
period. 

If  you  recall  the  introduction  of  the  classic  into  France, 
and  the  interesting  type  developed  during  the  reign  of 
Francis  I.,  and  note  that  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  followed 
immediately  after,  her  predecessors— Henry  VIII.,  Ed- 
ward VI.,  and  Mary  being  contemporaneous  with  Francis 
I.  and  Henry  II. — you  can  easily  comprehend  how  the 
introduction  of  classicism  into  England  came  about,  in  a 
great  degree,  because  of  the  asylum  offered  to  the  per- 
secuted reformers,  the  Lutherans  and  Huguenots.  Eliza- 
beth played  them  against  the  power  of  the  Church  of 
Rome,  and  during  this  wonderful  struggle  the  country 
not  only  developed  that  breed  of  fighting  sailormen  which 
included  Raleigh,  Grenville,  Drake,  and  Hawkins,  but, 
as  a  return  for  casting  her  bread  of  hospitality  on  the 
waters,  a  large  portion  of  the  intellectual  discovery  made 
by  France  became  part  and  parcel  of  her  develop- 
ment. 

The  spirit  which  dominated  the  home  -  loving  British 
people  during  the  Tudor  period,  expressed  by  the  blunt- 
ness  of  the  Tudor  arch  resulting  from  this  marriage 
of  science  and  domesticity,  accepted  the  new  importation 
with  reservations.  While  they  used  the  column  and 
pilaster  with  entablature  and  superimposed  arcade  from 
Italy,  by  way  of  the  French,  they  also  borrowed  the 

251 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

geometric  patterns  and  forms  of  the  Netherlands.  In 
language  and  race  spirit  they  were  more  in  sympathy  with 
these  Teutonic  people.  This  combination,  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  reign  of  good  Queen  Bess,  gave  us  the 
classic  for  our  own — Anglicized  but  still  classic.  As  the 
Elizabethan  grew  stronger  and  more  classic,  it  became 
Jacobean  during  the  reign  of  James  I.,  a  more  carefully 
studied  interpretation  of  these  same  principles. 

The  Venetian  architect  Palladio,  through  his  pupil  Inigo 
Jones  (1573-1652),  is  directly  responsible  for  the  new 
inspiration  which  cleared  away  the  indecision  and  un- 
certainty of  the  time,  and  gave  to  the  English-speaking 
race  the  basis  for  all  future  expression  in  architecture. 
Later,  when  Sir  Christopher  Wren  (1632-1723),  carrying 
on  this  work  of  reconstruction,  studied  in  Paris,  he  added 
to  the  value  of  the  work  which  had  preceded  him. 

The  new  Louvre  was  being  constructed  at  this  time, 
and  the  research  work  of  the  French  architects,  who  were, 
as  you  remember,  solidifying  the  laws  of  architectural 
composition,  were  studied  by  Wren  and  adopted  by  him 
in  his  own  interpretations.  Whitehall  and  the  palaces 
which  were  designed  by  Jones  are  colored  with  a  direct 
translation  from  the  original  Italian;  while  the  works  of 
Wren,  of  which  St.  Paul  is  a  supreme  example  (Fig.  100), 
and  his  Italian  translation  of  the  English  Gothic  spires 
in  the  numerous  London  churches,  show  a  playfulness 
and  a  cheerfulness  which  came  to  him  through  his  associa- 
tion with  the  great  master  minds  of  France — the  Greek 
of  the  modern  days. 

While  there  were  numerous  architects  of  importance  in 
England  at  this  time,  to  these  two  masters  of  the  art,  and 
the  new  grammar,  we  in  this  country  owe  much  if  not  all 


FIG.     TOO ST.    PAT  I,  S    CATIII-DRAL 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

of  our  ''Colonial"  or  Georgian — St.  Paul,  in  New  York 
City;  Independence  Hall,  in  Philadelphia;  Park  Street 
Church,  in  Boston;  and,  in  fact,  the  classic  church  of  the 
earlier  days  in  every  town  and  village  of  the  colonies. 
The  receding  and  successive  stories  of  the  spire  which 
dominates  the  tower,  emhellished  with  column  and  arch 
and  superimposed  order,  command  the  attention  of  the 
passer-hy  to  the  ideal  for  which  the  classic  scientist  had 
erected  this  temple,  the  spirit  of  the  harsh  and  uncom- 
promising church  of  the  Gothic  period  in  alliance  with 
the  cheerfulness  of  the  pagan. 

Trade  cleared  the  American  wilderness,  and  science 
erected  temples  to  the  ideal  of  the  early  fathers. 

Following  this  period  of  discovery  and  increasing  in- 
telligence in  England  came  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne 
(1702-1714),  and  a  continuation  of  the  efforts  of  Wren 
and  his  associates. 

Curiously  enough  the  name  of  Queen  Anne,  as  applied 
to  architectural  expression,  has  become  a  term  of  derision 
among  us.  It  is  interesting  to  note  at  this  time  the  un- 
fortunate reversions,  or  aberrations,  which  have  so  fre- 
quently marred  the  historical  continuity  of  our  subject. 
You  remember  how  the  Romanesque  became  debased  and 
debauched  through  the  efforts  of  the  sordid  and  ignorant 
until  one  shudders  at  our  brownstone  monstrosities.  So 
in  like  fashion  have  the  unthinking  Americans  encouraged 
the  corruption  of  a  beautiful  style  by  assuming  that  study 
and  analysis  is  not  a  matter  of  importance,  nor  that  the 
specialist  or  scientist  is  of  overmuch  use.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  carelessness,  "Queen  Anne"  is  a  synonym 
for,  if  the  phrase  may  be  permitted,  a  sort  of  architectural 
drunkenness. 

254 


PARALLEL  DEVELOPMENTS    IN    ENGLAND 

From  this  period  we  progress  logically  and  naturally 
into  the  times  of  the  Georges — and  the  Georgian  archi- 
tecture, a  form  of  expression  which  refers  not  only  to  the 
work  done  in  England,  but  to  our  own  earlier  work  in 
this  country. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE    GEORGIAN    PERIOD    OF    ENGLAND 

NTIL  the  end  of  the  Empire  in  France 
the  court  dominated  the  nation,  how- 
ever much  that  may  have  been  to  its 
disadvantage.  The  kings  were  al- 
ways Frenchmen  by  birth,  and  though 
often  weak  in  statesmanship  or  morals, 
they  at  least  were  strong-willed  enough 
to  control  and  ingenious  enough  to  outdo  their  nobles  in 
extravagance  and  profligacy. 

England,  on  the  contrary,  at  this  time  suffered  from  the 
rule  of  the  foreign  Georges.  These  Germans  were  bour- 
geois to  the  finger-tips,  uneducated,  unrefined,  without 
taste,  and  indifferent  to  the  arts  and  industries  of  the 
country.  How  could  any  nation  develop  good  taste  with 
a  court  life  such  as  this  dominating  the  social  life  of  the 
people  ? 

The  English  people,  saddled  as  they  were  with  a  most 
dreadfully  common  court,  and  inoculated  with  the  harsh- 
ness of  the  puritanical  rigidity  of  line  which  had  shown 
itself  in  the  Perpendicular  Gothic,  were  nevertheless  in- 
terested and  influenced  by  this  new  mode  of  expression, 
the  Renaissance.  They  had  turned  to  the  French  and 
to  the  original  Italian  for  inspiration,  and  these  people, 

256 


THE  GEORGIAN  PERIOD  OF  ENGLAND 

to  say  the  least,  were  not  puritanical  nor  were  they  both- 
ered overmuch  with  conventions. 

The  English  people  did  not  get,  however,  all  that  these 
Latin  people  were  capable  of  giving  to  them  from  the 
fulness  of  their  freedom  and  independence.  They  re- 
ceived and  assimilated  only  that  which  their  peculiar 
temperament  enabled  them  to  comprehend,  and  this  fact 
colored  the  translated  Renaissance  to  such  a  degree 
that  the  Georgian  expression  is  a  thing  distinct  and 
apart  from  the  work  of  the  contemporaneous  Latin 
races. 

For  a  parallel  we  may  use  the  Greek  and  the  Roman 
as  an  illustration  of  this.  The  Greek  classic  was  extreme- 
ly fine,  clever,  and  subtle  in  outline  and  proportions.  It 
is  a  truism  in  the  story  of  styles  that  this  almost  super- 
human refinement  of  the  Greek  has  never  been  equalled 
except,  perhaps,  in  the  Gothic  of  the  thirteenth  century. 
This  doubtless  explains  why  the  numerous  attempts  to  in- 
troduce the  pure  Greek  classic  in  the  modern  evolution  of 
architecture  has  been  abortive.  This  high  note  has  proved 
too  high,  too  fine,  and  too  subtle  for  our  enjoyment  and 
use.  Few  individuals  even  have  been  able  to  reach  this 
supreme  height  in  the  constructive  arts,  so  that  the  Greek 
remains  a  thing  apart,  a  style  to  be  admired,  to  be  applied 
but  rarely  assimilated. 

When  Greek  architecture  was  accepted  and  adopted 
by  the  Romans,  who  had  no  such  keenness  as  the  Greeks 
and  no  creative  power,  these  subtleties  were  not  under- 
stood or  even  discovered,  and  the  fine  laws  of  proportion 
and  the  delicate  line  of  the  curves  disappeared.  Thus  the 
curve  of  an  egg,  a  line  struck  with  a  free  and  clever  hand, 
might  be  considered  Greek,  while  the  outline  of  a  billiard- 

257 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

hall,  which  is  a  true  curve  made  with  a  compass,  is  dis- 
tinctly Roman. 

This  same  difference  appears  again  in  Renaissance 
times,  the  French  paralleling  the  Greek,  and  the  English 
interpreting  the  French  and  Italian  with  the  Roman  lack 
of  imagination. 

Corroyer  says,  "L'architecture  anglaise  avec  sa  struct- 
ure massive  ornee  de  details,  formee  par  des  lignes 
verticales,  rigides,  seches  et  dures  comme  le  fer,  et  1'archi- 
tecture  fran9aise,  gracieuse  et  ferme  a  la  fois,  souple  et 
forte  comme  Tor,  plus  solid  et  resistante  que  le  fer  sous 
1'apparence  d'un  art  plus  parfait."  Freely  translated,  a 
comparison  between  the  dryness  and  rigidity  of  iron  and 
the  flexible  quality  of  gold  as  exemplified  in  English  and 
French  modes  of  architectural  expression. 

The  New  York  City  Hall  is  the  most  beautiful  and  per- 
fect type  of  this  English  Renaissance  period  in  America, 
though  built  at  the  commencement  of  the  nineteenth 
century  (Fig.  101).  It  is  really  a  translation  of  the  Italian 
style,  by  the  English  in  England,  transplanted  here.  It  is 
contemporaneous  with  the  style  of  Louis  XVI.  of  France, 
and  has  precisely  the  same  motifs,  or  parts,  and  the  same 
classic  detail.  Yet  if  it  were  discovered  in  Versailles  it 
would  be  recognized  instantly  as  English,  largely  by  its 
slight  rigidity  of  mold  profile  and  its  lack  of  the  dis- 
tinctive French  keenness. 

There  being  no  royal  stimulus  for  the  arts  in  England 
it  became  the  habit  of  the  people  to  force  creation  while 
deploring  the  lack  of  taste  and  refinement  in  their  rulers. 
Sir  Christopher  Wren,  who  did  so  much  for  the  Renais- 
sance in  England,  lived  well  into  the  reign  of  the  First 
George.  He  had  continued  the  custom  of  studying  Pal- 

258 


THE  GEORGIAN  PERIOD  OF  ENGLAND 

ladio  and  the  laws  of  the  ancient  Romans,  which  had  been 
established  by  his  predecessors.  That  he  received  8.r.  4^. 
per  day  with  an  allowance  of  £46  per  year  for  incidental 
expenses  had  no  appreciable  effect  on  his  creations. 


FIG.    101 — CITY    HALL,    NEW    YORK  (ENGLISH    RENAISSANCE) 

He  was  followed  by  John  Gibbs,  Sir  John  Vanburgh, 
Sir  William  Chambers,  and  others  amono;  the  architects, 

O 

and   by   Chippendale,   Thomas   Johnson,    Grinling   Gib- 

259 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

bons,  Sheraton,  Hepplewhite,  Pergolesi,  and  the  brothers 
Adam  among  the  allies.  The  arts  of  inlaying,  carving, 
and  turning,  and  the  creation  of  mantels,  ceilings,  furni- 
ture, and  all  other  accessories  reached  a  high  point  of 
excellence  during  this  period. 

My  Lady  and  My  Lord  were  cajoled  and  flattered  by 
these  decorators  and  architects  as  only  the  hungry  next 
class  can  flatter  on  that  tight  little  isle.  It  became  the 
mode  to  patronize  these  creative  shopkeepers,  and  natural- 
ly the  shopkeeper  made  the  best  of  it.  It  is  extremely 
surprising  that  these  wonderful  men  were  willing  to  bow 
to  the  class  distinctions  that  had  developed  greatly  at 
this  time,  and  thus  to  accept  the  condescension  of  their 
intellectual  inferiors.  It  is  more  amazing  still  that  it 
seems  to  have  effected  no  degradation  in  their  art. 

Dear  old  Sam  Pepys  had  the  same  servile  respect  for  a 
title,  and  so  also  did  that  great  literary  group— the  fathers 
of  modern  English  literature.  We  must  recogni/e  in  this 
a  marked  difference  in  point  of  view  between  the  second- 
ary class  in  the  Middle  Ages,  who  fought  for  the  free  cities, 
and  the  cultivated,  creative  group  of  this  period.  That 
creation  of  Hopkinson  Smith's,  the  "Mussulman"  who 
"put  off  his  shoes  at  the  vestibule  of  the  mosque,  wor- 
shipped God  on  his  face  according  to  the  code,  and  then, 
standing  erect,  looked  God  squarely  in  the  eye,  for  he 
wras  a  man,"  compels  a  comparison  which  is  not  to  the 
credit  of  these  creators  of  charming  and  beautiful  things. 

The  great  trading  companies  of  this  time  brought  to 
England  styles  and  tvpes  of  the  Far  East,  and  some  of 
these  forms  had  much  influence  on  the  creations  of  the 
Englishmen.  Mere  again  commercialism,  or  trade,  shows 
its  partnership  with  the  arts.  The  aits  of  the  Ear  East 

260 


THE  GEORGIAN  PERIOD  OF  ENGLAND 

were  borrowed  and  adapted  in  bewildering  fashion  until 
you  stand  breathless  in  admiration  before  the  most  in- 
tricate and  delicate  craftsmanship.  Many  fine  examples 
of  these  pieces  have  been  brought  into  this  country,  and 
may  be  studied  in  collections  as  well  as  in  the  Fifth  Avenue 
shops  of  New  York. 

Louis  XV.  and  XVI.,  Rococco,  Baroque,  Chinese,  Ind- 
ian, Greek,  and  indeed  every  style  that  had  preceded 
them,  were  all  fish  for  their  basket.  In  this  work,  Angli- 
cized and  adapted  from  the  arts  of  the  world,  these  wor- 
shippers of  titles  have  given  us  results  that  have  never 
been  equalled.  This  is  due,  without  doubt,  to  the  inde- 
pendent cleverness  of  the  court  lady.  So  we  must  for- 
give these  weaknesses  as  we  already  have  forgiven  Pepys, 
Fielding,  Smollet,  Richardson,  and  old  Boswell — for  we 
love  them  all.  This  is  our  heritage,  and  as  colonists  we 
have  taken  both  facts  and  fancies  for  ourselves. 

If  we  were  able  to  eliminate  from  our  vocabulary  of 
architectural  style  the  word  "Colonial"  and  substitute 
"Georgian"  in  its  place,  we  could  better  adjust  our  point 
of  view  to  the  appreciation  of  the  many  wonderful  ex- 
amples of  this  English  revival  of  the  classic  here  and  in 
England,  accepting  them  as  belonging  to  a  single  style, 
as  they  do  (Fig.  102).  The  entrance  colonnade  to  Hamp- 
ton Court  Palace,  built  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren  (1689- 
1694),  would  be  considered  Colonial  architecture  if  it 
existed  in  this  country,  with  its  double  columns,  classic 
horizontal  cornice  with  balustrades  above,  and  the  usual 
urn  crowning  the  posts  at  the  corners.  Somerset  House, 
which  was  built  by  Sir  William  Chambers  in  1776,  is  an- 
other example  of  a  later  revival  of  classic  reflected  in  our 
so-called  Colonial.  In  this  case  the  Roman  Tuscan,  the 
IS  261 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

Doric,  and  the  Corinthian  orders,  with  the  arches  and  vaults 
of  the  Italian  fifteenth-century  classic  translation,  are  used. 


FIG.    IO2 — GEORGIAN    IN     LNGI.AND 

It  was   during  this   period  (in    1762)  that   Stuart   and 
Revctt   published   the  result   of  their  studies   in   Greece. 

262 


THE  GEORGIAN  PERIOD  OF  ENGLAND 

This  work  had  a  great  influence  on  the  expression  of  the 
time.  Palladio  first,  the  French  of  the  Louvre  and  the 
new  translation  in  Paris,  and  now  the  pure  Greek  in- 
spiration. It  is  delightful  to  note  the  manner  in  which  our 
English  forebears  accepted  and  adopted  these  examples 
of  an  expression  of  another  time  and  another  race,  and 
how  the  brilliancy  of  this  earlier  language  enamoured 
them  to  such  an  extent  that  they  not  only  lost  their  heads 
but  forgot  their  native  domesticity;  their  hearts  also 
weakened.  Form  and  fitness  dominated.  The  oil  and 
water  did  not  mix,  and  we  have  as  results  palaces  and 
manor-houses  in  which  the  utilitarian  yields  to  this  desire 
for  form. 

Lord  Chesterfield  is  impressed  by  this,  and  quotes: 

"Possessed  of  one  great  house  of  state, 
Without  one  room  to  sleep  or  eat, 
How  well  you  build  let  flatt'ry  tell, 
And  all  mankind  how  ill  you  dwell." 

The  French  nation,  with  its  Gallic  temperament,  had  con- 
quered the  expression  of  the  earlier  pagan,  whereas  our 
English  predecessors  yielded  themselves  to  the  seduction 
of  extreme  cleverness  and  merely  copied. 

Greek  architecture  in  the  hands  of  the  Latin  became 
a  new  style,  while  this  same  expression  when  used  by  the 
Anglo-Saxon  remains  Greek  to  this  day. 

While  this  Greek  influence,  which  grew  under  the  hands 
of  Henry  Holland,  who  died  in  1806,  and  of  Lord  Elgin, 
who  had  pilfered  the  Parthenon  frieze  and  the  master- 
pieces of  Greek  sculptors  in  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  had  a  certain  effect  on  the  style  of  the 

263 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

English,  it  did  not  become  part  and  parcel  of  the  national 
architecture.  It  did,  however,  carry  through  with  its 
peculiar  aloofness  into  our  own  country,  where  it  colors 
towns  and  cities  alike.  Here  it  is  frequently  called 
"Colonial,"  though  the  colonies  had  already  given  birth 
to  the  nation  when  the  Greek  invasion  took  place.  As  a 
peculiar  illustration,  the  architecture  of  old  New  York  is 


FIG.    103 — DOORWAY    IN    NEW    YORK    CITY  (GREEK) 

essentially  Greek  to-day.  The  houses  of  Washington 
Square,  of  Gramercy  Park,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
Battery,  in  the  quarter  where  St.  John's  Park  formerly 

264 


THE    GEORGIAN    PERIOD    OF    ENGLAND 

stood,  and  indeed  most  of  the  work  which  remains  to  us 
from  the  time  which  precedes  the  Civil  War,  are  Greek, 
still  pure  as  the  architects  copied  it,  and  not  in  any  sense 
evolutional.  The  Greeks  had  taken  Holland  (Figs.  103, 
104). 

On  the  other  hand,  to  return  to  our  English  Georgian, 
this  Greek  influence  was  opposed  by  such  men  as  the 
great  English  architect  Sir  William  Chambers,  who  con- 
tinued the  study  of  the  Italian  worthies,  Palladio  and 
Vignola,  and  influenced  the  growth  and  adjustment  of 
the  Roman  classic  throughout  the  latter  half  of  the  eigh- 
teenth century  to  such  an  extent  that  the  work  of  Jones 
and  Wren,  with  his  own  creations,  became  firmly  rooted 
in  English  soil. 

This  is  Georgian,  the  efforts  of  these  three  great  men 
and  their  associates,  and  the  end  of  constructive  archi- 
tecture in  England  for  many  a  day. 

The  Third  George  lost  the  American  colonies  because 
of  his  stupidity  and  stubbornness.  Then  the  ogre  Na- 
poleon isolated  the  tight  little  island  to  such  an  extent 
that  all  impetus  in  the  arts  died  out.  England  was  com- 
pelled, because  of  this  isolation,  to  live,  like  the  bear  in 
winter,  off  her  own  fat,  and,  like  the  bear  in  the  spring, 
she  came  out  lean  and  lank  without  inspiration  or  impetus. 

Beginning  in  the  nineteenth  century  with  the  Victorian 
Gothic  revival,  which  was  without  reason  or  logic  and 
therefore  ineffective,  and  with  what  has  been  called 
"Victorian  Classic,"  we  have  the  black-haircloth  period, 
the  memory  of  which  is  still  with  us.  This  oddly  parallels 
an  artistic  retrogression  in  other  countries. 

William  Morris  and  the  brilliant  group  of  artists  asso- 
ciated with  him  in  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 

265 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

tury,  in  the  "pre-Raphaelitc"  movement,  were  directly 
responsible  for  the  disappearance  of  the  marble-topped 
black-walnut  table  and  the  slippery  black-haircloth  sofa 
with  all  their  attending  horrors.  They  studied  the  arts 


FIG.    IO4 — DOORWAY    IN    NEW    YORK    CITY  (GREEK) 

and  literature  of  Italy,  and  applied  their  discoveries  with 
splendid  effect.  Gilbert  and  Sullivan,  who  gave  us  the  im- 
mortal "Pinafore"  and  "The  Mikado,"  belonged  to  the 
group  of  men  in  this  movement.  Though  they  did  not 

266 


THE  GEORGIAN  PERIOD  OF  ENGLAND 

deal  directly  with  problems  of  aesthetics,  their  works  had 
a  marvellously  wholesome  effect  on  the  life  of  the  nation. 
That  the  influence  of  the  strong  man  Morris  and  his  asso- 
ciates is  lasting  there  can  be  no  question  when  we  turn 
from  the  horror*  of  wax  flowers  and  immortelles  in  hair 
to  the  Morris  recognition  of  truth  in  constructive  art. 

As  a  reference  for  the  use  of  the  reader,  I  append  the 
following  list  of  the  English  styles  with  their  dates: 

Anglo-Saxon 449-1066 

Norman 1066-1189 

Early  English  (thirteenth  century)   .     .     .  1189-1307 

Decorated  (fourteenth  century)     ....  1307-1377 

Perpendicular  (fifteenth  century)       .     .     .  1377-1485 

Tudor  Gothic 1485-1558 

Elizabethan  Renaissance 1558-1603 

Jacobean  Renaissance 1603-1625 

Late  Renaissance 1625-1702 

Queen  Anne 1702-1714 

Georgian 1714-1811 

Revival  of  every  style 1811-1836 

Victorian 1836- 


MODERN 


THE  FOURTH  PERIOD 


CHAPTER  XVI 


THE    GEORGIAN    IN    AMERICA 

HERE  are  certain  basic  forms  of 
architectural  decoration  that  seem 
spontaneous  in  all  primitive  people 
at  certain  stages  of  their  develop- 
ment, and  so  in  the  pre- Aryan  ar- 
chitecture of  America  these  forms 
are  found  to  be  almost  identical  with 
those  discovered  on  other  continents. 

In  addition  to  this,  however,  there  are  certain  evident  blood 
relationships  which  we  should  note  before  going  on  to  a 
study  of  the  transplantations  of  European  styles,  with 
which  we  are  chiefly  concerned. 

The  Spanish  destroyers,  who  first  swept  into  the  tropical 
and  subtropical  areas  of  the  Americas  in  their  eagerness 
for  souls  and  gold,  found  temples  and  palaces  of  con- 
siderable magnitude  quite  elaborately  decorated  in  relief. 
Not  only  were  the  common  primitive  forms  of  the  "fret" 
pattern  used,  but  there  were  evidences  of  an  ancient  trans- 
fusion of  Buddhistic  symbolism  and  also  of  a  tendency  to 
interlace  design  on  plain  wall  surfaces  in  the  manner  of 
the  Northern  barbarians  of  Europe  before  the  world  move- 
ment reached  them  from  the  Franks.  The  somewhat 
similar  carvings  of  the  Celtic  cross  and  the  characteristic 

271 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

interlaced  bands  of  the  Scandinavian  and  Slav  ornament 
showed  convincing  evidence  of  Byzantine  and  Mongolian 
influences  mysteriously  transmitted  by  way  of  the  Danube, 
that  back  door  of  Europe. 

There  are  also  decorative  forms  of  undiluted  Mon- 
golian ancestry,  confirming  the  historians  who  claim  that 
Chinese  and  Japanese  traders  early  crossed  the  Pacific 
and  travelled  down  the  coast  to  the  regions  where  crops 
grew  without  labor,  thus  infusing  a  measure  of  their 
Asiatic  culture. 

Pre-Aryan  architecture  in  America  has,  however,  had 
no  influence  upon  our  development  of  styles,  and  is  there- 
fore of  interest  rather  to  the  archaeologist  than  to  the 
student  of  growth  in  style. 

The  Spanish  occupation  of  Mexico  resulted  in  a  dis- 
tinctive subtype  of  ecclesiastical  architecture.  The  Span- 
iards, in  their  zeal  for  native  converts,  built  chapels  and 
monasteries  of  rich  and  barbaric  beauty,  a  sort  of  Spanish 
Renaissance  strengthened  and  colored  by  the  simplicity 
and  vigor  of  local  conditions. 

The  civic  churches  have  the  old  classic  moldings  and 
the  geometric  patterns  of  Saracenic  origin  found  in  cruder 
and  clumsier  forms  among  the  Danube  barbarians  and  in 
the  copied  forms  of  the  mother-country.  There  is  here, 
however,  a  richness  and  an  expression  of  power  that  is  not 
Northern  (Fig.  105). 

The  domestic  or  plaster  chapel  or  monastery  of  Mexico, 
Texas,  and  Lower  California,  which  was  used  as  a  mission 
and  is  generally  so-called,  is  familiar  in  southern  Spain. 
Here  and  there  on  the  hills  of  that  beautiful  country  one 
finds  delightfully  picturesque  groups  of  these  buildings 
in  white  or  yellow  or  richly  weathered  grays,  with  red- 

272 


THE    GEORGIAN    IN    AMERICA 


FIG.    105 — CHURCH    IN    MEXICO 

tiled  roofs  that  are  heavily  lined  with  whitish-yellow 
cement  at  the  joints  and  overhanging  eaves.  The  wood- 
work is  often  panelled  in  a  geometric  fashion  suggesting 
Cairo  and  the  Saracens. 

The  American  prototypes  of  these  monasteries  are  found 

273 


HOW   TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

in  a  country  so  like  parts  of  Spain  in  their  semi-tropical 
beauty  that  they  seem  hardly  exotics,  and  they  have  been 
largely  effective  in  inspiring  a  sporadic  revival  of  Spanish 
Renaissance  in  domestic  architecture,  which,  however, 
seems  much  more  suited  to  the  hot  Southwest  than  to 
the  cool  North. 

The  simple  craftsmanship  of  the  Spanish-American 
monks  resulted  in  the  production  of  a  few  interesting  and 
charming  pieces  of  primitive  furniture.  They  were  so 
complete  an  expression  of  unstudied  utilitarianism  that, 
in  the  ensuing  period  of  overelaboration  and  machine- 
made  copies,  they  seemed  inspired  novelties. 

A  chair  of  this  type  found  its  way  from  a  mission  in 
California  to  the  shop  of  a  clever  New  York  decorator  of 
my  acquaintance.  It  was  a  good,  sound  chair,  beautiful 
in  its  strength  and  logical  simplicity.  This  decorator 
called  it  the  "mission  chair,"  and  began  reproducing  it. 
The  style  grew  popular,  and  tables  were  designed  to  match 
the  chairs.  Soon  scores  of  manufacturers  were  rushing 
out  cheap  "mission"  furniture  to  catch  a  share  of  the 
fad's  profits,  and  every  conceivable  object  of  household 
adornment  was  being  "missionized,"  usually  without 
rhyme,  reason,  or  taste. 

The  "mission"  aberration  has  a  little  to  commend  it. 
It  has  taught  us  something  of  the  value  of  simplicity,  and 
it  has  given  rise  to  several  refinements  that  are  excellent 
when  used  with  discrimination,  but  it  is  also  a  very  pres- 
ent object-lesson  of  the  depths  to  which  style  develop- 
ments may  descend  when  stimulated  by  injudicious  de- 
sire for  novelty,  and  unchecked  by  public  discrimination 
and  judgment.  It  is  also  an  illustration  of  the  transitory 
nature  of  unscientific  expression. 

274 


THE    GEORGIAN    IN    AMERICA 

A  movement  toward  simplicity  of  a  very  similar  nature 
broke  out  in  England  during  the  "haircloth"  period. 
This  was  called  "Eastlake."  An  honest  effort  at  first, 
it  was  soon  degraded  from  its  high  estate  of  chamfered 
edges  and  pinned  and  wedged  frame-work  showing  honest 
construction  into  a  glued-up  and  overornamented  degra- 
dation. 

The  mission  style  is  being  followed  by  a  more  carefully 
considered  and  studied  creation  of  interior  treatment  and 
furnishing,  based  on  the  many  interesting  translations  of 
the  joiner  and  cabinet  man  of  the  Georgian  period.  It 
seems  possible  that  this  scientific  treatment  of  a  style 
identical  with  our  Colonial  will  drive  the  brutality  of  the 
pseudo-mission  into  the  background,  The  careful  re- 
production of  old  forms,  even  though  it  be  "machine- 
made,"  is  something  of  an  advance. 

American  architecture  really  begins  for  us  with  the  so- 
called  Colonial,  which  is  English  Renaissance  or  Georgian, 
which,  in  turn,  is  a  translation  of  the  Italian,  early  Roman, 
or  French  Renaissance.  There  is  much  confusion  in  the 
terms  applied  to  these  styles,  and  a  sad  lack  of  knowledge 
as  to  what  the  terms  include.  That  crude  translation  of 
the  Napoleonic  Empire  style,  for  instance,  which  we  have 
found  in  odd  corners  of  the  seaboard  cities,  as  well  as 
the  Greek  translations  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  last 
century  already  mentioned,  are  often  miscalled  "Colo- 
nial." 

In  the  territory  east  of  the  Alleghanies,  to  which  the 
Colonial  period  belongs  exclusively,  there  are  five  divisions 
showing  markedly  different  influences. 

To  the  north,  in  the  Canadian  province  of  Quebec,  is 
the  resion  of  the  French  traders  who  came  over  without 

o 

275 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

wives  or  families  for  the  fur  trade  with  the  Indians,  return- 
ing home  as  soon  as  they  had  made  their  fortunes. 

Next  below  the  French  zone  were  the  settlements  of  New 
Kngland.  These  were  made  by  Britons  of  the  Puritan 
type — craftsmen,  weavers,  and  small  traders — humble  but 
sturdy  folk  fleeing  from  religious  or  political  perse- 
cution, and  therefore  destined  to  remain.  These  men 
brought  their  wives  and  children  with  their  household 
goods,  and  for  tools  of  trade,  a  loom,  an  axe,  and  a  flint- 
lock. 

Around  New  York  came  the  Dutch  settlers,  agents  of 
the  East  India  Trading  companies,  small  burghers  and 
farmers,  substantial,  industrious,  and  plain,  prototypes,  in 
many  ways,  of  the  New-Englanders.  These  in  turn  gave 
way  to  the  English  when  Charles  II.,  late  in  the  seven- 
teenth century,  calmly  appropriated  the  colony.  In  this 
zone  we  may  also  include  the  Quakers  of  Pennsylvania 
and  the  Swedish  settlers  of  Maryland  (Fig.  106). 

In  the  fourth  zone— the  Virginias  and  the  adjoining 
States — the  settlers  were  English  cavaliers,  the  gentlemen 
adventurers  who  supported  the  Stuarts,  and  for  whom 
England  grew  unpleasant  when  Cromwell  became  power- 
ful. In  this  class  there  were  education  and  class  tradi- 
tion. They  reflected  their  home  life  when  they  began  the 
building  of  manor-houses  on  large  estates  worked  by 
slaves.  Here  for  the  first  time  in  America  was  the  seign- 
iorial atmosphere  of  the  Old  World. 

In  the  extreme  South  was  another  French  and  Spanish 
group,  who,  while  developing  the  domestic  styles  in  their 
homes,  had  little  influence  on  the  development  of  what  is 
known  to  us  as  Colonial  or  Georgian.  These  men  were 
adventurers,  and  in  reality  a  foreign  nation,  with  French, 

276 


THE    GEORGIAN    IN    AMERICA 

Spanish,  and  piratical  affiliations,  until  the  days  of  the 
English  colonies  had  passed  into  history. 

The  architecture  of  these  various  localities  is  colored  to 
a  greater  or  less  degree  by  the  nationality,  the  caste,  and  the 
individual  characteristics  of  the  settlers;  but  it  has,  in  a 
general  way,  a  blood  relationship  that  is  easily  discernible. 


FIG.    IO6 — DUTCH    BUNGALOW,    NEW    YORK    STATE 


In  the  North  we  have  no  Colonial  architecture  until 
after  the  French  and  English  wars,  simply  because  you  can 
never  find  permanency  in  style  until  you  find  fixed  ideal- 
ism or  a  home  community-  You  remember,  the  French 
colonist  as  an  individual  had  no  intention  of  staying  in 
this  new  France,  while  the  English,  dragged  into  a  war 
19  277 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

because  of"  the  general  European  turmoil,  were  stayers  to 
the  last  degree. 

'1  hey  did  not,  therefore,  impress  themselves  on  the  ar- 
chitecture of  the  period,  as  they  were  from  that  time  a 
French  and  English  nation  more  or  less  mixed,  without 
a  national  or  single  purpose. 

The  New  England  Puritans  started  life  in  the  New 
World  with  a  struggle  for  a  bare  existence,  so  they  began 


FIG.  IO7 — A  GAMBREL  ROOF  AT  NEWPORT,  R.  I. 

building,  after  the  log-cabin  period  had  passed,  in  a  sim- 
ple and  purely  domestic  fashion.  This  might  properly  be 
called  the  gambrel-roof  period  (gambrel  is  from  the  old 
French  "gambe,"  or  leg,  the  obtuse  angle  of  the  roof  re- 
sembling the  leg  with  the  knee-joint)  (Fig.  icy),  The 
doorways  were  frequently  decorated  with  flat  pilasters, 

' 


THE    GEORGIAN    IN    AMERICA 

and  some  attention  was  given  to  the  simple  detail  of  the 
cornice,  but  very  little  elaborate  work  was  attempted.  The 
window-panes  were  small  because  of  the  difficulty  of  manu- 
facturing larger  sheets  of  glass,  and  the  colors  used  in 
decorating  were  always  yellow  or  red,  as  they  had  few  if 
any  other  pigments.  In  many  of  our  present-day  Colonial 
buildings  these  two  characteristics  are  about  the  only  link 
between  the  new  and  the  old. 

Most  of  the  New  England  houses  were  covered  with 
sidings  or  clapboards,  and  the  roofs  with  shingles  of  large 
size,  the  walls  being  filled  with  brick,  and  in  some  cases 
with  seaweed,  for  warmth.  In  many  instances  the  north 
wall  was  built  entirely  of  brick.  These  houses  were 
framed  of  large  corner  posts  and  with  cross-beams,  in  the 
same  manner  as  our  early  barns,  projecting  into  the  rooms, 
and  for  finish  were  covered  with  plain  boards.  The  panel- 
ling of  the  dado  or  wainscot  in  the  more  developed  house 
was  of  wide  boards  with  the  edges  bevelled,  and  these 
large  boards  were  held  in  place  by  a  small  quarter-round 
molding.  The  wainscots  and  windows  and  door-trim,  or 
frame,  were  always  flush  with  the  face  of  the  adjoining 
plaster  wall.  The  fireplaces  were  built  of  brick  with  large 
openings,  the  only  way  of  warming  and  cooking.  They 
were  panelled  simply,  and  had  always  a  plain  shelf  for 
candlesticks  and  the  flint  and  steel  box. 

In  these  fireplaces  was  once  common  an  interesting 
andiron  called  the  "Hessian  soldier."  This  was  cast 
during  the  heat  of  the  Revolution  and  supplied  in  large 
numbers  to  the  loyal  American,  so  that  he  might,  in  the 
seclusion  of  his  own  fireside,  show  his  hatred  of  the  breed 
by  spitting  at  its  image,  which  he  did  with  admirable 
gusto  and  marksmanship. 

279 


FIG.   IO8 — CHURCH    AT    SALEM,  MASS. 


THE    GEORGIAN    IN    AMERICA 

This  period  seems  to  represent  to  most  of  us  the  ideal 
of  homely  comfort  and  the  charm  of  the  open  fire  on  the 
hearthstone,  the  geographical  centre  of  human  emotions. 
I  suppose  the  love  of  the  early  architecture  of  this  country 
is  so  closely  associated  with  our  own  memories  of  child- 
hood and  the  hearthstone  of  our  own  individual  grand- 
mothers, that  we  forget,  never  having  experienced  them 
ourselves,  the  discomforts  of  a  cold  home  away  from  the 
fire.  I  myself  have  measured,  sketched,  and  studied  the 
old  houses,  always  with  a  strong  stirring  of  emotion,  being 
only  one  generation  removed  from  this  type.  I  have  lived 
in  a  home  with  a  sanded  floor  laid  out  in  patterns  with  a 
bunch  of  twigs,  and  with  a  grandmother  and  her  daughter 
who  cooked  in  the  Dutch  oven  and  used  the  flint  and 
lucifer  stick  and  administered  the  old  Indian  "yarbs"  for 
sickness.  I  remember,  too,  the  quilt  made  in  the  best 
room  by  the  tea-drinking  women  of  the  neighborhood,  and 
because  of  all  these  peculiar  and  pleasant  memories,  which 
are  not  in  any  sense  academic  but  always  human,  these 
architectural  expressions  of  this  period  have  a  most  pe- 
culiar fascination.  Oddly,  they  are  colored  with  much  the 
same  sentiment  as  you  will  find  in  the  south  of  France 
during  the  Romance  or  Romanesque  period.  There  also 
was  a  sane  and  homely  people,  living  close  to  the  hearth- 
stone, and  translating  the  other  emotions  of  life  through 
the  language  of  this  hearthstone  comfort.  This  is  why  the 
"Georgian"  period  appeals  to  us.  It  is  human  and  direct, 
and  a  true  utilitarian  expression  of  needs,  and  is  therefore 
artistic  and  of  value  in  the  development  of  our  modern 
styles  of  religious  and  domestic  work  in  architecture. 

As  prosperity  developed  because  of  the  New  England 
activity  in  the  slave  and  East  Indian  trades,  the  type  of 

281 


•Sv 


-    ;^       ,<** —        — • :  1 
iVi    irr'l    -r — aT 

'  ' 


THE    GEORGIAN    IN    AMERICA 

house  changed  in  the  more  settled  localities — in  the  cities 
and  along  rivers  and  post-roads.  Now  we  have  a  carefully 
considered  and  studied  type  of  Renaissance  house,  show- 
ing Italian  influence  through  the  works  of  Vignola  and 
Palladio,  who  were  popular  authorities,  translated,  of 
course,  by  the  home  authorities  and  with  the  local  limita- 
tions and  variations. 

For  a  long  time  the  architects  and  decorators  of  both 
England  and  the  Continent  had  used  as  a  substitute  for 
carved  ornaments  a  material  called  "papier-mache"  or 
"carton-pierre,"  a  paper  pulp  or  stone  pasteboard  which 
was  pressed  in  molds  while  wet  and  applied  after  harden- 
ing to  the  wood  surface.  This  material  allowed  a  new 
freedom  and  more  opportunity  for  the  display  of  rich 
embellishments.  Unfortunately,  when  this  went  to  the 
head  of  the  builder,  the  results  were  not  always  admir- 
able. Cupids,  festoons,  garlands,  molding  decoration,  and, 
in  fact,  all  details,  which  before  the  introduction  of  this 
machine-made  product  had  of  necessity  been  carved  by 
the  individual,  were  now  cheap,  and  could  be  plastered 
on  ad  libitum. 

In  our  days  this  industry  has  been  carried  to  such  a 
degree  of  perfection  that  the  bosses,  crockets,  and  even 
the  constructional  forms  of  the  old  work  are  reproduced 
so  perfectly  that  the  personality  of  the  detail  has  disap- 
peared; and  we  ourselves  frequently  refer  to  a  catalogue 
number  for  the  decorative  forms,  or  we  turn  a  compressed- 
air  machine  with  its  pointers  on  an  old  form  newly  made, 
and  reproduce  age  so  exactly  that  its  own  creator  would 
not  be  able  to  distinguish  between  the  true  and  the  false. 

O 

Now  it  appears  that  in  the  days  of  old,  in  this  country, 
there  were  men  who,  while  devoted  slaves  of  Palladio, 

283 


FIG.     IIO — STATE    CAPITOL,    BOSTON,    MASS. 


THE    GEORGIAN    IN    AMERICA 

Vitruvius,  and  Vignola,  were  far  removed  from  the  base 
of  supplies,  but  they  must  build  and  decorate  with  or  with- 
out authority.  Then  the  active  commercial  traveller  ap- 
peared with  his  samples,  travelling  by  schooner  or  stage- 
coach, from  Montreal  to  Savannah,  encouraging  the  desire 
for  embellishment,  and  then  satisfying  it  with  "papier- 
mache."  Here  ready-made  were  the  forms  they  must  use. 
Did  not  those  ancient  worthies  of  the  fifteenth  century  in 
Italy  demand  it  of  them  ? 

It  seems,  however,  that  many  needs  arose  out  of  these 
new  conditions,  and  while  the  house  of  Jackson,  in  Lon- 
don, for  more  than  two  hundred  years  has  been  able  to  sup- 
ply babies  and  baskets,  frets  and  friezes,  swags,  wreaths, 
and  sunbursts,  it  could  not  meet  all  the  demands  of  the 
time,  nor  could  it  provide  for  many  new  problems.  It 
often  became  necessary  then  for  these  forebears  of  ours  to 
"piece  out  with  the  skin  of  the  fox,"  their  own  invention 
and  creations  being  frequently  of  as  much  interest  to  the 
antiquarian  as  were  the  frequent  changes  in  the  forms 
of  moldings,  or  in  the  relations  which  one  molding  bore 
to  its  neighbor.  These  craftsmen,  you  must  realize,  were 
no  weaklings,  and  the  little  bits  of  original  design  that 
we  find  show  to  the  student  the  location  of  the  work. 

For  example,  we  have  authentic  records  of  a  family  of 
joiners  named  Maclntire,  of  Salem,  Massachusetts,  whose 
cunning  descended  through  many  generations  of  sons 
and  cousins.  The  old  ships  of  China  traders  sailing 
from  these  New  England  ports  were  provided  with  cabins 
fitted  with  painted  and  mahogany  joinery  of  the  high- 
est order.  This  work,  with  the  carved  figure  -  heads 
and  the  ornaments  of  the  poop-deck,  was  done  by  these 
same  masters  of  the  art  of  joinery.  One  can  imagine  the 

"285 


HOW   TO    KNOW   ARCHITECTURE 

interesting  personalities  of  these  pioneer  craftsmen  from 
Portsmouth,  Newhuryport,  Salem,  and  Boston,  allied  by 
the  spirit  of  creation  and  competition,  exhibiting  their 
work  in  the  foreign  towns,  discussing  the  use  of  the  proper 
chisel  or  turning-machine,  exactly  like  our  friends  in  the 
guilds  of  old. 

These  Maclntires  and  their  kind  in  every  section  of 
the  colonies  were  building  overmantels,  doorways,  porches, 
staircases,  and  furniture  of  all  sorts,  turning  new  beads 
or  twisted  rope  ornaments,  spiral  balusters  of  various 
forms,  with  a  knowledge  of  the  law,  but  independent 
enough  to  vary  or  create  as  the  conditions  demanded.  It 
is  because  of  this  independence  that  the  New  England  Co- 
lonial has  a  charming  individuality  of  its  own  despite  the 
fact  that  the  British  manufacturers  had  already  standard- 
ized all  ornamental  detail  to  a  dangerous  degree. 

The  proportion  of  column  and  pilasters,  and  the  detail 
of  the  entablature  in  the  transplanted  style  remains 
academic  until  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  the 
unpleasantness  between  the  colonies  and  the  mother- 
country  shut  off  the  source  of  inspiration.  To  such  an 
extent  did  this  affect  the  product  that  style  became  dis- 
tinctly debased  some  time  before  the  builders  yielded  to 
the  seductions  of  the  French  Empire  influence. 

There  are  few  towns  of  any  considerable  age  in  New 
England  without  their  squire's  house,  where  the  best  of 
which  the  community  was  capable  found  its  expression, 
and  these  are  often  very  fine  indeed.  Many  of  the 
churches,  too,  are  beautiful.  Several  were  built  after  the 
designs  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren  and  other  English  archi- 
tects, and  are  not  less  charming  than  their  own  work  in 
London  (Figs.  108,  109). 

286 


FIG.    Ill — A    DOORWAY   AT    PORTSMOUTH,    N.    H. 


HOW   TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

Bullfinch,  who  built  in  Boston,  and  Strickland,  of  Phila- 
delphia, were  inspired  by  these  giants  of  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries.  Our  Capitol  and  the  White 
House  in  Washington,  the  State  House  in  Boston  (Fig. 
lio),  recently  degraded  by  a  most  insulting  addition,  and 
the  old  Chestnut  Street  Theatre  in  Philadelphia,  with 
the  numerous  town  churches  already  referred  to,  are  con- 
tributions of  the  old-school  American  students  of  these 
men  (Fig.  in). 

In  parentheses,  let  me  say  here  that  the  excellences  of 
the  true  Colonial  period  are  largely  attributable  to  the 
training  and  temperament  of  the  builders  or  joiners,  who 
were  also  architects  and  craftsmen  of  a  high  order.  When 
the  books  failed  him  this  type  of  man  worked  out  his 
problem  conscientiously.  His  pride  in  his  work  would 
not  let  him  scamp  it,  and  the  result  is  good  and  quaint 
in  its  newness.  Since  the  religious  fervor  of  the  Middle 
Ages  died  out.  this  individual  instinct  to  do  good  work 
for  its  own  sake — the  artistic  conscience,  if  you  will — has 
been  the  mainspring  of  architectural  progress  (Figs,  ill, 
113).  It  has  not  been  of  creative  vigor,  but  it  is  again 
lifting  us  out  of  the  slough  of  architectural  decadence, 
as  we  have  seen  that  it  did  in  former  times. 

The  places  where  the  New  England  Colonial  came  to 
fullest  flower  are  the  cities  of  Massachusetts  Bay  and 
settlements  along  the  shores  of  Long  Island  Sound,  all 
communities  built  up  by  the  wealth  amassed  through  the 
old  East  India  and  slave-trading  companies,  which  passed 
from  father  to  son  of  the  New  England  aristocratic  class. 

With  the  architecture  of  the  Dutch  in  New  York  we 
have  little  interest.  It  is  neither  Colonial  nor  had  it  any 
influence  on  Colonial,  with  this  slight  exception:  the 

288 


FIG.     112 — A    MODERN    EXAMPLE    OF    GEORGIAN    (CORINTHIAN) 


Dutch  in  New  Jersey,  on  Long  Island,  and  to  some  extent 
in  the  northerly  parts  of  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland, 
built  for  themselves  farm-houses  with  stone  and  stucco 
walls  and  long,  sloping  roofs,  the  first  attack  of  bungalow 
fever  this  country  had.  These  houses  are  rarely  of  large 
size,  and  are  entirely  domestic  in  spirit.  There  has  been 
nothing  passed  down  to  us  by  the  Dutch  like  the  pure 
style  of  New  England  and  the  Virginias,  though  the  so- 
called  Dutch  Colonial  is  quite  charming  in  its  human  ex- 
pression, and  is  peculiarly  fit  for  much  of  our  modern 
domestic  need. 

Strangely  enough,  the  two  types  of  our  Colonial  were 
created  by  the  two  distinct  types  of  society,  the  gentleman 
and  the  bourgeois.  In  the  North,  the  man  with  the 
musket;  in  the  South,  the  man  with  the  sword.  The 
cavaliers  of  the  South  were  gentlemen  because  of  the 
social  law  of  the  country,  while  the  Northerners  were 
gentlemen  simply  because  it  was  not  their  fault. 

The  association  of  the  cavaliers  with  the  Stuarts  and 
the  French  court  sometimes  shows  itself  in  architecture. 
In  the  old  town  of  Annapolis  there  is  a  most  interesting 
example  of  this.  One  of  the  old  manor-houses  has  de- 
tails which,  while  Renaissance,  are  not  English,  nor  are 
they  pure  French.  There  is  a  little  of  the  blood  of  a  side- 
stream  that  spread  into  England  and  Scotland,  something 
of  the  Jacobite,  a  word  which  stands  for  a  period  that  fol- 
lowed the  purifying  of  the  Eli/abethan  and  also  for  a 
political  party  which  supported  James  II.  The  name, 
by-the-way,  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  Jacobins 
of  the  French  Revolution,  which  title  came  from  the 
convent  of  the  Black  Friars.  It  was  essentially  Roman 
Catholic  in  its  traditions,  however,  even  in  those  early 

290 


THE    GEORGIAN    IN    AMERICA 

days,  and  here  in  Virginia  are  subtle  indications  of 
the  religion  and  family  traditions  that  influenced  them. 
These  Southerners  were  in  constant  communication  with 
"  home."  Their  sons  and  daughters  were  educated 
there,  and  supplies  and  clothing  came  to  them  in  exchange 
for  cargoes  of  tobacco.  You  can  readily  see  how  the 
educated  Virginians  became  amateur  architects  of  taste 
and  discrimination.  They  also  had  an  equally  profound 
respect  for  the  traditions  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  and 
great  pride  of  blood. 

The  plan  of  the  Southern  Colonial  house  in  many  ways 
differs  from  that  of  New  England.  The  Northerner  built 
his  house  with  a  central  hall  and  two  rooms  on  either 
side,  the  kitchen  and  service  portion  being  arranged  for 
in  the  rear.  In  the  South  wre  have  the  French  method  of 
balance.  The  main  portion  supported  by  smaller  wings — 
the  kitchen  and  service  on  one  side,  and  on  the  other  the 
business  or  law  office  of  the  master  of  the  home.  It  is 
most  significant  that  these  people  usually  either  wTore  the 
sword  or  studied  Blackstone,  while  the  estates  were  man- 
aged by  factors,  as  in  the  old  seigniorial  days. 

There  are  a  great  many  examples  of  Southern  mansions 
with  columns  two  stories  in  height,  and  frequently  with 
balconies  thrown  out  at  the  second-floor  level.  This  you 
rarely  find  in  the  North.  The  details  also  were  more 
refined,  with  Adam  mantels  in  colored  marble  and 
the  more  delicate  Adam  papier-mache  applied  orna- 
ments. 

These  people  also  differed  from  those  of  the  North  in 
that  they  rarely,  if  ever,  were  at  a  loss  for  architectural 
authorities.  Having  more  books,  they  had  fewer  inven- 
tions. And,  indeed,  a  great  deal  of  the  work  was  done 

291 


FIG.     113 — A    MODERN    EXAMPLE    OK    GEORGIAN    (iX)RIc) 


THE    GEORGIAN    IN    AMERICA 

for  them  in  London,  in  architecture  as  well  as  in  dress- 
making. 

This  cavalier  influence  extended  southward  until  it  lost 
itself  in  the  temporary  influence  of  the  Latin,  seen  most 
characteristically  in  the  old  French  quarter  of  New 
Orleans. 

While  many  architects  and  amateurs  may  be  unable  to 
point  out  the  subtle  differences  which  have  been  developed 
in  these  styles  by  religion,  race,  or  political  differences  of 
outlook,  or  the  so-called  crudities  which  have  resulted 
when  the  authorities  are  ignored,  it  is  nevertheless  a  fact 
that  the  student  can  give  you  the  period  and  location  of  a 
building  from  some  such  minor  detail  as  the  turn  of  the 
cornice,  the  treatment  of  a  column  or  its  capital,  the 
material  used,  and  the  method  of  applying  the  material. 
Not  only  does  this  apply  to  the  main  parts  of  the  country, 
but  in  many  cases  to  small  localities  in  which  there  have 
been  minor  differences  in  local  history. 

As  architecture  has  from  the  earliest  times  expressed 
the  desires  of  the  people,  and  has  honestly  told  the  story 
of  their  necessities  and  their  luxuries  in  a  language  that 
is  universal  and  can  be  read  by  any  one  who  will  master 
its  delicacies  and  its  slang,  so  it  is  to-day.  You  can  with- 
out effort  separate  the  Gothic  from  the  Classic,  the 
Romanesque  from  the  Byzantine.  A  little  further  study 
will  differentiate  for  you  the  English  revival  and  the 
Italian  revival,  the  Philadelphia  Georgian  and  the  Geor- 
gian of  Boston  or  of  Annapolis.  I  hope  you  see  now  that 
with  such  knowledge  your  own  home  may  express  to  you 
not  only  a  family  tradition,  but  a  world  tradition. 
20 


CHAPTER   XVII 


THIi    AMKKICAN    DECADENCE 

OLLOWING  the  fruitage  of  the  Colonial 
period  came  much  immigration,  political 
disturbance,  and  a  relaxing  of  old  stand- 
ards. 

The  revival  of  Greek  ideas  which  came 
from  England  in  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century  and  lasted  a  few  years 
gave  us  a  number  of  beautiful  examples, 
but  what  began  by  being  Greek  came  in 
time,  especially  in  the  churches  built  under  the  new  in- 
fluence, to  resemble  a  child's  nest  of  boxes  superimposed 
in  the  order  of  their  size  and'  supported  by  ponderous 
Doric  columns  entirely  of  wood  painted  to  imitate  granite. 
This  style  appears  occasionally  in  court-houses  and  the 
mansions  of  the  squires  throughout  the  northern  half  of 
the  Atlantic  seaboard. 

An  interesting  type  was  developed  about  the  middle  of 
the  century  by  Godey's  Ladies'  Magazine,  published  in 
Philadelphia  in  the  early  sixties.  This  arbiter  of  taste  and 
fashion  "featured"  a  series  of  architectural  designs  which 
it  called  "Italian  villas."  These  were  actually  reproduced 
in  many  parts  of  the  country,  because,  unhappily,  no  one 
seemed  to  know  better.  This  was  the  black-walnut-and- 

294 


THE    AMERICAN    DECADENCE 

haircloth  period  abroad,  and  America  responded  with  a 
lack  of  taste  that  has  already  become  appalling,  and  that 
it  will  take  two  or  three  generations  more  to  live  down 
(Fig.  114). 

The  question  of  State  sovereignty  coming  to  a  head  in 
the  Civil  War  stopped  all  building  and  paved  the  way  for 


FIG.    114 — THE    BLACK-WALNUT    PERIOD   (VICTORIAN    GOTHIC) 

a  new  era,  which,  however,  was  slow  in  coming.  Just  after 
the  war  the  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  was 
founded.  This  was  the  first  school  of  architecture  in  the 
United  States,  and  it  plaved  an  important  part  in  advan- 

295 


cing  the  cause  of  sound  architecture.  The  first  head  of 
the  institute  was  a  practising  architect  with  a  genuine 
respect  for  Old  World  traditions,  Prof.  William  Robert 
Ware,  now  retired,  and  the  professor  emeritus  of  the  pro- 
fession. Through  the  elder  men  of  the  profession — whom 
Professor  Ware  still  calls  his  "hoys" — he  had  a  profound 
influence  on  American  architecture.  The  elder  "Tech" 
men  are  now  scattered  throughout  the  Union,  and  are 
everywhere  demonstrating  the  value  of  sound  training. 

In  1876  came  the  Philadelphia  Exposition,  which  stimu- 
lated interest  in  this  science,  and  was  also  of  value  in  start- 
ing an  interest  in  study  abroad.  American  students  began 
to  attend  the  Ecole  de  Beaux  Arts  in  Paris,  a  strenuously 
French  and  academic  institution  of  the  first  rank.  The 
influence  of  its  teaching  on  the  strong  men  is  marvellous, 
and  many  of  America's  best  architects  have  a  Beaux  Arts 
training.  The  cities  are  full  of  weak  men,  however, 
students  of  this  school,  who  have  misunderstood  the  basic 
training  on  law  and  theory,  and  who  return  with  centre 
lines  and  red  spots,  mingled  with  the  slang  of  the  Quartier 
Latin,  and  little  real  appreciation  of  the  value  of  sub- 
jecting theory  to  practice.  While  the  Beaux  Arts  is  re- 
sponsible for  many  of  the  best  men  in  the  profession  it 
must  also  accept  the  responsibility  of  producing  a  large 
number  of  half-trained,  half-finished  practitioners.  It  is 
noteworthy  that  few  men,  either  at  the  time  we  have 
been  speaking  of  or  since,  went  to  Germany  for  study, 
although  England  continued  to  receive  a  considerable 
share  of  the  students.  At  this  time  in  England  there  was 
a  revival  of  the  Queen  Anne  style  and  also  of  the  Flem- 
ish; the  latter  seems  to  have  a  peculiar  fascination  for 
the  English.  Students  and  travelling  draftsmen  brought 

296 


THE    AMERICAN    DECADENCE 

home  to  America  sketches  of  these  huildings,  and  they 
were  weakly  reproduced  on  this  side,  descending  finally 
into  the  hands  of  the  carpenters  in  the  production  of  cheap 
speculative  houses,  and  sometimes  used  by  men  who 
should  have  known  better.  The  resultant  type  has  been 
derisively  called  the  "carpenter  style,"  and  its  most  kindly 
cognomen  is  the  "American  domestic,"  generally  a  thing 
for  strong  men  to  shudder  at,  but  which  has  slowly  disap- 
peared before  the  steady  improvement  in  public  discrimi- 
nation and  the  wide-spread  demand  for  greater  beauty  in 
the  domestic  and  civic  environment. 

In  opposition  to  this  decadence  of  style  under  the  great 
commercial  growth  of  the  country  is  the  influence  of  a 
few  individual  architects  of  power  and  strong  purpose. 
One  of  these  was  the  late  Richard  M.  Hunt,  the  best  all- 
around  man  that  the  country  has  produced,  a  purist  in 
style,  devoted  to  tradition,  but  with  broad  sympathies  and 
no  architectural  hobbies.  Mr.  Hunt  brought  back  from 
the  "Ecole"  of  France  the  Neo-Grec  or  the  New  Greek 
style,  in  which  he  built  the  Lenox  Library  and  the  Tribune 
Building  in  New  York;  but  he  worked  with  equal  facility 
and  success  in  a  dozen  other  styles.  He  also  created  an 
epoch  in  palace-building  for  the  wealthy  man  of  discrimi- 
nation of  the  last  generation. 

The  late  H.  H.  Richardson,  architect  of  Trinity  Church 
in  Boston,  especially  devoted  himself  to  the  interpretation 
of  the  Romanesque  architecture,  and  did  it  brilliantly, 
though  he  paid  the  penalty  as  a  specialist  in  having  a 
horde  of  incompetent  imitators  who  did  no  honor  to  the 
ancient  style.  With  them  anything  and  everything  be- 
came Romanesque,  provided  it  was  clumsy,  brutal,  and 
built  of  brownstone. 

297 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

Other  contributors  to  the  progressive  movement  were 
Me  Kim,  Mead  &  White,  who  devoted  themselves  to 
Italian  Renaissance.  They  are  also  responsible  for  the 
finishing  and  polishing  of  more  of  the  best  practitioners 
than  is  any  other  firm,  establishing  as  they  have  an 
academy  of  architecture  for  a  post-graduate  course.  Mr. 
McKim  is  responsible  for  the  new  Academy  at  Rome, 
where  the  students  are  going  for  a  new  book — the  epistle 
of  the  French  not  having  held  its  old  influence  in  recent 
years. 

This  leaven  of  sound  and  needed  scholasticism  has 
gradually  dominated  the  faddish  individualization  of  the 
past  generation,  so  that  to-day  we  see  one  of  those  periods 
of  study  and  analysis  which  pave  the  way  for  creative 
work.  This  does  not  come,  as  we  have  seen,  without 
powerful  stimulus  from  outside  architecture  itself,  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  impetus  may  prove  abortive  if  there 
are  no  standards  for  foundation. 

The  dominating  element  in  American  architectural  prog- 
ress to-day  is  the  use  of  new  materials.  The  old  styles 
grew  logically  out  of  the  use  of  wood,  stone,  and  brick. 
To-day  we  use  steel  beams,  and  the  architectural  problem 
is  therefore  reversed.  You  remember  that  all  the  strange 
and  unprecedented  beauties  of  the  Gothic  style  grew  out 
of  the  need  to  support  a  very  high  and  heavy  roof.  The 
classic  also  grew  through  the  use  of  stone  for  perpendicular 
support. 

With  steel  construction  it  is  no  longer  necessary  to  use 
walls  for  supporting  the  structure.  They  may,  in  fact, 
be  built  from  the  top  story  down,  and  their  sole  purpose 
is  protection  from  the  weather.  Are  we,  then,  to  treat  this 
great  self-supporting  steel  framework  as  if  it  needed  ad- 

298 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

ditional  support,  and  pretend  to  carry  it  with  walls  made 
in  imitation  of  the  supporting  walls  of  former  styles,  or  are 
\ve  to  look  at  it  with  a  fresh  eye,  recognize  its  real  structure 
as  inherent  and  self-sufficient,  and,  meeting  the  issue  hon- 
estly, enclose  the  building  logically  and  at  the  same  time 
beautifully  ? 

The  first  sky-scrapers  were  designed  in  the  classic  style 
because  that  was  the  style  of  convention.  So  we  had  the 
astonishing  incongruity  of  a  Greek  temple,  with  all  its 
niceties  of  detail  elongated  to  an  extraordinary  height  and 
much  of  its  fine  detail  wholly  lost  to  the  naked  eye.  Our 
tall  buildings  are  still  usually  surmounted  by  a  heavy  and 
elaborate  classic  cornice  at  a  height  of  two  or  three  hun- 
dred feet — a  thing  incongruous,  useless,  and  unfit. 

We  have  been  experimenting  since  then,  and  have 
learned  many  things  about  the  treatment  of  tall  buildings, 
but  we  still  use  the  horizontal  lines  of  the  classic  and 
divide  the  wall  surface  into  base,  shaft,  and  capital,  with 
the  attendant  entablature  somewhat  after  the  division  of 
the  classic  column. 

It  is  astonishing  that  no  one  for  so  long  thought  of 
building  many-storied  office  structures  in  pure  Gothic,  for 
here  surely  is  the  logical  treatment  of  the  problem,  at  least 
within  existing  traditions.  The  so-called  sky-scraper  is 
as  essentially  expressive  of  height  as  the  Gothic  churches 
were.  The  long  vertical  lines  are  its  dominant  lines,  yet 
in  almost  all  existing  types  these  are  broken  as  far  as 
possible  by  heavy  horizontal  lines,  as  if  the  intent  were  to 
make  it  a  superimposition  of  disconnected  stories  and 
group  of  stones.  If  pure  Gothic  forms  were  used  the 
horizontal  lines  would  retire,  and  the  vertical  lines  be 
accented  to  the  fullest,  carrying  up  from  story  to  story  in 

300 


THE    AMERICAN    DECADENCE 

a  way  that  would  immensely  increase  the  impression  of 
height.  The  plain  surface  between  the  lines  of  support 
would  be  treated  probably  in  terra-cotta  slabs,  or  some 
plastic  form  that  would  honestly  express  the  mere  inten- 
tion of  enclosing  the  building.  This  would,  in  the  Gothic 
style,  be  much  more  feasible  than  in  a  classic  form;  and 
it  would  be  more  economical  because  of  the  simplification 
and  repetition  of  manufactured  decorative  details. 

In  civic  or  governmental  buildings  the  United  States 
shows  genuine  and  most  gratifying  progress.  During  the 
black-walnut-and-haircloth  period,  and  later  during  the 
carpenter  period,  many  unkind  things  architectural  were 
done  in  the  name  and  out  of  the  pocket  of  the  Federal 
government.  Even  the  fine  examples  of  the  Capitol  and 
the  Treasury  Building  did  not  suffice  to  save  the  nation 
from  the  Washington  and  New  York  post-offices,  the  build- 
ing of  the  War,  Navy,  and  State  departments,  or  that  su- 
preme achievement  of  engineering  architecture,  the  Pen- 
sion Office.  We  were  not  even  saved  from  the  overornate 
gilt  dome  and  the  hopeless  tangle  of  detail  of  the  Con- 
gressional Library,  which  brazenly  flaunts  itself  in  com- 
petition with  the  majestic  and  dignified  Capitol  dome, 
though  this  production  is  of  our  own  day. 

On  the  whole,  however,  progress  is  genuine  and  wide- 
spread, thanks,  very  largely,  to  the  excellent  work  of  the 
present  supervising  architect  of  the  United  States  Treasury, 
James  Knox  Taylor,  and  his  predecessor,  William  Martin 
Aiken,  both  graduates  of  the  Massachusetts  "Tech."  Mr. 
Aiken's  regime  was  a  clearing  away  of  old  departmental 
traditions,  red  tape,  and  dead-wood,  in  preparation  for  the 
adoption  of  new  methods.  Mr.  Taylor's  thirteen  years  of 
office  have  been  actively  and  solidly  constructive. 

301 


THE    AMERICAN    DECADENCE 

All  the  important  Federal  buildings  of  the  Colonial 
period  were,  perhaps,  inevitably  in  some  form  of  classic 
which  has  ever  seemed  best  to  express  the  ideals  of  civic 
or  national  dignity  and  power.  These  early  buildings  are 
the  best  we  have,  and  they  express  not  only  their  special 
purpose,  but  our  national  spirit  as  nearly  as  we  have  been 
able  to  express  it.  Building  on  this  foundation,  Mr.  Tay- 
lor had  developed  a  distinctly  classic  form  for  all  those 
governmental  buildings  within  his  jurisdiction — post- 
offices,  customs-houses,  and  Federal  courts.  So  there  are 
coming  into  being,  or  recently  completed,  in  many  parts 
of  this  country  classic  buildings  which  are  serving  as 
inspiration  and  models  for  other  public  and  semi-public 
buildings  (Figs.  115,  116).  It  is  largely  as  a  result  of 
this  Federal  initiative  that  evidence  of  a  sound  and 
wholesome  classic  revival  is  so  apparent  throughout  the 
United  States. 

While  the  big  cities  with  their  great  sky-scrapers  are 
working  out  their  peculiar  and  special  problems,  and  may 
find  the  solution  in  Gothic  lines,  the  line  of  growth  in  all 
other  kinds  of  buildings  is  thus  distmctlv  toward  the 
classic— one  might  almost  say  the  more  classic.  These 
seem  the  dominant  tendencies,  but  almost  equally  sig- 
nificant is  the  frequent  and  sound  use  of  almost  every 
style  we  have  named.  It  is,  as  has  been  said,  a  period  of 
analysis  and  experiment.  Young  America  is  trying  to 
express  herself,  and  because  she  is  a  conglomerate  of 
many  elements,  the  expression  is  still  various  and  un- 
certain, but  with  fixed  tendencies  growing  more  and  more 
apparent. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


PROGRESS    IN    OTHER    COUNTRIES 


UR  studies  have  led  us  up  to  this 
point  along  the  central  line  of  prog- 
ress, from  Byzantium  to  Athens, 
thence  to  Rome,  northward  into 
France,  and  so  onward.  Only  one 
offshoot  or  back-water  have  we  fol- 
lowed—  that  of  the  Byzantine  into 
Russia — and  the  others  must  be  disposed  of  now. 

In  travelling,  either  in  Spain  on  the  one  hand  or  in 
Germany  and  the  North  countries  on  the  other,  one  finds 
so  much  of  interest  and  beauty  in  the  old  examples  that 
it  is  difficult  to  realize  these  works  are  not  within  the 
main  line  of  growth,  and  not  vital  or  even  participating 
in  the  development  of  architectural  styles  that  have 
meaning  for  us  to-day. 

Spain  developed  individually  and  with  some  distinction 
in  a  style  somewhat  muddied  by  her  Arab  invaders.  It 
was  this  Saracenic  control  which  kept  her  out  of  the 
main  current  of  progress,  and  while  it  created  for  itself 
on  its  own  account,  there  are  not  those  elements  in  it 
vital  to  ourselves  or  to  our  times.  Saracenic,  or  Moorish, 
architecture  and  decoration  is  seen  in  this  country  often 
enough  to  be  familiar  to  most  of  us,  but  it  is  always  an 

3°4 


PROGRESS    IN    OTHER    COUNTRIES 

exotic  and  never  quite  fit  or  at  home.  In  later  times 
America  borrowed  from  Spain  a  style  made  familiar  in 
the  old  Spanish  missions  of  Texas  and  California,  which 
is  now  being  used  extensively.  Even  this  style  is  distinct- 
ly foreign,  especially  in  the  North,  and  in  the  considera- 
tion of  the  great  European  movement  which  we  have  been 
watching  it  has  no  essential  part. 

Spain  itself,  however,  has  architecture  of  more  interest. 
After  it  had  driven  out  the  Moors,  the  pure-blooded  Span- 
iards— who  called  themselves  blue-blooded,  to  indicate 
their  freedom  from  Moorish  ancestry  or  black  blood- 
began  the  development  of  their  country's  meteoric  com- 
mercial career.  The  gold  from  its  possessions  in  the 
New  World  began  pouring  in,  and  with  its  geographical 
position  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Mediterranean  in 
the  line  of  the  new  trade  routes,  Spain  became  immensely 
rich  and  powerful.  The  Spanish  army  and  navy  were 
the  strongest  and  the  most  feared  in  the  world. 

Here  was  certainly  the  basic  element  for  architectural 
creation,  and  yet  we  do  not  find  it.  Instead,  we  discover 
a  period  of  imitation  and  copying.  Here  we  have  no 
national  concentration  on  the  ideal.  The  time  for  crea- 
tion had  passed;  the  stimulus  was  lacking,  and  therefore 
even  the  adaptations  lacked  the  beauty  and  force  of  the 
originals.  This  condition  is  partially  due  to  Spain's  slow- 
ness in  joining  the  movement,  already  well  developed  in 
France  and  England,  for  real  nationalization,  and  to  the 
corrupt  and  selfish  rulers  of  Church  and  State.  These 
men  may  be  said  to  have  had  their  hands  on  the  throat 
of  Spain,  and  she  could  not  shake  them  ofF,  as  France, 
England,  and  the  German  states  were  doing.  The  fanat- 
icism of  the  Church  under  the  power  of  its  rulers  drove 

3°5 


HOW   TO    KNOW   ARCHITECTURE 

the  jews  from  the  country,  and  the  loss  of  those  keen 
traders,  with  their  wonderful  and  far-reaching  inter- 
national affiliations,  an  element  corresponding  to  our 
banking  institutions,  seriously  retarded  development. 
Then  the  Inquisition  and  the  Society  of  Jesus  drove  out 
the  thinkers  and  creators,  because  they  could  not  be 
made  to  conform  to  the  dictates  of  the  established  Church. 
So  we  find  Spain  bereft  of  two  vital  elements — the  trader 
and  banker,  who  was  also  manufacturer  and  craftsman, 
and  the  creator,  who  was  scientist  or  artist.  There  remain 
the  peasant,  and  the  noble  and  priest  who  lived  on  the 
peasant  and  produced  nothing,  nor  suffered  others  to. 
So,  in  another  way,  we  see  our  early  formula  or  law  again 
proved.  Spain,  in  losing  the  control  of  trade,  that  sub- 
dues the  wilderness,  and  science,  that  builds  temples  to 
the  ideal,  lost  every  hope  of  greatness.  Her  downfall  was 
inevitable,  and  the  lack  of  cohesion  or  continuity  in  the 
growth  of  style  here  shown  is  another  most  striking  illus- 
tration of  the  value  of  architecture  as  an  index  to  national 
conditions. 

Spain's  cathedrals  were  borrowed  from  France,  and 
both  the  Romanesque  and  Gothic  were  drawn  upon. 
The  church  at  Salamanca  was  late  Romanesque  (1120  to 
1178),  with  a  dome  at  the  intersection  of  nave  and  tran- 
sept. It  is,  however,  not  to  be  compared  with  the  French 
cathedrals. 

Seville  has  the  largest  mediaeval  cathedral  in  the  world, 
built  between  1401  and  1520.  The  architecture  is  Gothic, 
but  liberties  were  taken  with  those  forms  which  in  France 
were  the  direct  results  of  utilitarian  requirement,  and 
therefore  true  and  lawful.  For  instance,  classic  moldings 
and  details  were  borrowed  and  used  with  the  Gothic 

306 


PROGRESS    IN    OTHER    COUNTRIES 

forms,  not  with  a  clear  and  definite  ideal,  but  arbitrarily 
and  inconsistently.  In  the  same  way  various  localisms 
were  introduced  and  grafted  on  the  borrowed  style  with- 
out due  reason.  So  with  a  corrupt  ideal  we  have  a  cor- 
ruption of  its  expression,  for  the  bizarre  Spanish,  despite 
its  bigness  and  impressive  qualities,  does  not  reach  any- 
thing like  high-water  mark. 

In  the  countries  north  and  east  of  France  we  find  the 
same  failures  of  great  achievement  but  from  different 
causes.  The  great  trade  routes  of  this  region  (now 
comprising  the  German  and  Austrian  empires  and  the 
Netherlands)  were  the  Rhine,  which  flows  northward 
from  the  Alps  to  the  North  Sea,  and  the  Danube,  flowing 
southward  and  eastward  to  the  Black  Sea.  With  these 
trade  routes  open,  as  in  former  times,  the  Eastern  trade 
with  the  North  and  West  belonged  to  these  Eastern  Franks, 
and  there  was  every  prospect  of  their  supremacy.  With 
Constantinople  closed  by  the  Turks,  however,  the  trade 
tide  swung  to  the  westward,  leaving  the  Eastern  Europeans 
to  fight  back  the  Mongolian  hordes,  while  the  Western 
people,  thus  protected,  went  about  the  business  of  de- 
velopment. The  Easterners,  of  course,  joined  with  Eng- 
land and  France  in  the  Crusades,  and  they  had  their 
share  of  the  constant  internecine  wars,  fighting  alter- 
nately with  the  Lombards,  with  their  own  German 
princelets,  and  with  the  pope  and  his  bishops. 

Then  the  German  kings  dreamed  that  splendid  dream 
of  a  \vorld  empire  by  conquest,  the  same  dream  that  had 
possessed  Alexander,  Caesar,  and  Charlemagne,  partly 
fulfilled  by  each  in  turn,  resulting  each  time  in  weakness 
and  disintegration.  While  the  kings  of  France  and  Eng- 
land remained  at  home  attending  to  the  small  but  effective 

3°7 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

business  of  overthrowing  both  feudal  barons  and  the 
peasantry,  the  German  king,  as  the  successor  of  Charle- 
magne, was  nursing  a  triple  sovereignty  over  all  his  own 
vast  and  incorrigible  domain — over  Germany,  Italy,  and 
the  Holy  Roman  empire.  The  great  plan  did  not  succeed. 
The  triple-crowned  king  was  defeated  by  the  feudal  lords 
at  home,  and  Germany  remained  without  any  large  or 
cohesive  national  spirit,  until  the  impetus  which  France 
had  got  out  of  the  union  of  religious  revolt  and  of  national 
pride  had  driven  her  well  into  the  lead. 

Some  authorities  have  claimed  that  the  Gothic  inspira- 
tion of  France  came  from  this  Eastern  source.  You  re- 
member that  Charlemagne  brought  architects  north  from 
Ravenna  in  Italy  to  build  the  cathedral  of  Aix  (796  to 
814).  This  had  an  undoubted  influence,  but  that  it  was 
fundamental  in  giving  us  the  Gothic  I  decidedly  ques- 
tion. The  theory  I  have  enunciated  of  architectural  style 
development,  following  trade  under  the  inspiration  of 
political  and  religious  conflict  and  progress,  too  plainly 
operates  in  the  case  of  France  to  permit  the  acceptance 
of  such  tenuous  hypotheses. 

The  architectural  supremacy  of  France  over  Germany 
was  hardly  apparent  during  the  Romanesque  period.  The 
churches  of  this  style  in  Saxony  and  the  other  German 
countries  are  not  greatly  inferior  or  different  from  those 
in  the  south  of  France,  except  as  local  tradition  and  the 
available  materials  show  their  influence.  The  most  not- 
able variations  are  the  addition  of  apses  to  both  the  ends 
of  the  church,  and  also  at  the  ends  of  the  transepts,  and 
in  the  form  of  the  tower  roofs.  These  have  steep  gables 
on  each  of  the  four  sides,  with  a  ridge  starring  from  the 
apex  of  each  gable  and  running  to  the  apex  of  the  tower 

308 


PROGRESS  IN  OTHER  COUNTRIES 

at  a  steep  angle.  A  crude  spire,  peculiar  to  these  North 
countries,  is  the  not  altogether  imposing  result. 

The  Romanesque  forms  continued  to  dominate  archi- 
tecture in  Germany  until  the  thirteenth  century,  but  even 
they  did  not  show  the  progress  that  was  going  on  in 
France.  Then  in  1273  the  house  of  Hapsburg  succeeded 
to  the  German  crown  under  Rudolph,  and  Gothic  was 
introduced  from  France.  But  again  the  impetus  that  had 
driven  the  French  churches  skyward  in  such  a  dazzling 
burst  of  creative  ecstasy  was  lacking,  and  though  notable 
copies  were  made,  nothing  was  added  to  the  rich  dis- 
coveries of  the  Norman  Frenchman.  Cologne  cathedral, 
begun  among  the  first,  is  the  best-known  example  of  Gothic 
architecture  in  Germany.  It  is  an  adaptation,  almost  a 
copy,  of  the  great  cathedral  at  Amiens. 

During  the  Renaissance  period  the  German  people 
made  their  own  investigation  of  the  laws  of  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans,  and  developed  their  own  translations. 
But  the  court  and  the  language  of  France  shows  its  in- 
fluence, coloring  more  or  less  the  architectural  expression 
of  the  nations  as  far  north  as  the  barbarian  Russian;  un- 
til in  modern  times  we  find  a  nation,  an  empire,  having 
passed  through  the  fires  of  religious  revolt  and  internecine 
war,  creating  for  herself  an  ideal  which  was  destined  to 
dominate  and  to  force  scientific  or  art  creation  indepen- 
dent of  the  old  laws  and  codes,  and  another  distinct  and 
dominating  style  in  architecture. 

We  have  seen  a  nation  of  Greeks,  cohesive,  of  one  blood 
and  race -proud,  followed  by  a  mediaeval  France  with 
pride  of  race,  of  power,  and  of  national  idealism,  creating 
for  themselves  and  for  us  the  only  complete  and  distinc- 
tive expressions  of  idealism  and  science  in  the  life  story 
21  3°9 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

of  the  races.  And  now  the  (German  people,  having  served 
as  a  bulwark  against  the  invasion  of  the  barbarian,  and 
having  solved  for  herself  her  own  national  problem,  has 
taken  unto  herself  one  religion  and  one  nation. 

Commercialism  and  trade  is  for  the  Fatherland.  Science 
is  creating  for  the  idealism  of  the  Fatherland;  and  another 
nation,  cohesive,  concentrated,  and  nation-proud,  is  climb- 
ing toward  that  apex  which  has  been  reached  so  rarely 
in  the  history  of  style  (Fig.  117). 

The  East  must  in  time  succumb  to  the  Teuton,  and 
out  of  this  Fatherland  of  style  and  symbolism,  coupled 
with  the  independence  and  creative  force  of  an  intense 
idealism,  \vill  come,  if  it  is  not  already  on  the  way,  a  new 
and  a  distinctive  method  of  expression.  It  would  seem 
necessary,  therefore,  in  considering  broadly  the  question 
of  the  proper  approach  to  the  knowledge  of  architecture, 
that  one  should  remember  our  axiom. 

To  know  architecture  is  to  know  the  fundamental  hu- 
man or  national  idealism. 


CHAPTER  XIX 


THE    ARCHITECT   AND   THE    FUTURE 

ITTLE  has  been  said  in  this  book  con- 
cerning the  individual,  the  architect, 
who  has  through  the  ages  carried  on 
and  developed  the  laws  of  the  language 
of  building  so  that  we  may  read  the 
story  of  man's  evolution  in  composition 
and  construction  in  our  own  street  and 
our  own  home.  We  have  watched  the  human  emotions 
that  have  been  dominant  in  molding  the  changing  form 
on  which  architectural  styles  are  based.  In  trying  to 
grasp  the  salient  and  especially  human  characteristics  of 
the  styles,  we  have  largely  and  perhaps  wisely  overlooked 
the  medium  through  whom  the  influence  operated. 

For  the  architect's  share  in  the  evolution  of  style  is 
curiously  less  than  would  naturally  be  supposed.  He  be- 
gan as  a  mere  craftsman,  building  without  traditions  for 
purely  utilitarian  purposes.  Then  came  the  idea  of  doing 
honor  to  deity  and  the  state,  and  something  more  was  at- 
tempted— first  bigness,  then  beauty.  The  popular  de- 
mand and  popular  aspiration  forced  the  attempt,  the 
medium  was  the  architect.  He  collected  all  available 
experience  on  the  subject  and  created  results  in  harmony 
with  this  demand.  He  was  scientist,  and,  in  a  measure, 

312 


THE  ARCHITECT  AND  THE  FUTURE 

artist,  but  the  fundamental  emotional  or  art  impulse  came 
from  the  people,  and  he  created  always  within  the  limita- 
tions of  popular  acceptance  and  understanding.  It  is  be- 
cause of  this  fact  that  he  has  told  us  the  true  story  of 
the  people  and  of  the  desires  of  his  time. 

Architecture  is  unique  among  the  professions  and  the 
arts  by  reason  of  its  numberless  limitations — traditional, 
scientific,  practical,  and  personal.  On  the  one  hand,  for 
instance,  is  its  alliance  with  the  numerous  manufacturing 
and  building  trades,  and  on  the  other  is  the  constructive 
imagination  of  the  artist  seeking  expression  under  the 
absolute  control  of  financial  conservation. 

Ordinary  every -day  human  convenience  must  domi- 
nate all  traditions,  laws,  and  periods  in  the  practice  of 
the  architect.  The  discrimination  and  taste  of  the  owner 
or  investor  and  the  requirements  of  his  family  or  tenant, 
the  social  or  business  environment  and  the  customs  of 
the  locality,  with  the  materials  decided  on  because  of  their 
fitness,  are  all  matters  of  essential  importance. 

The  constantly  changing  conditions  which  exist  in  the 
inventive  and  manufacturing  world,  the  increasing  use  of 
concrete  and  steel,  the  multitudinous  inventions,  and  the 
endless  flood  of  catalogues  make  it  almost  impossible  for 
an  architect  to  remain  fixed  in  any  one  mental  attitude 
for  any  length  of  time.  While  he  must  know  as  an  artist 
the  basic  laws  of  composition  and  style,  he  must  as  a 
constructor  or  business  man  be  as  well  informed  in  the 
theory  and  use  of  the  many  elements  that  are  to  become 
part  of  his  scientific  whole,  and  which  must  have  their 
own  peculiar  share  in  the  making  or  the  marring  of  his 
artistic  composition.  He  must  be  at  least  on  speaking 
terms  with  all  such  practical  and  prosaic  necessities  as 

3*3 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

steam-heating,  electricity,  machinery,  and  plumbing;  the 
constructing  ability  of  contractors,  foremen,  and  work- 
men, as  well  as  accounting  methods  that  enable  him  to 
check  costs  and  payments,  and  to  act  as  a  financial  expert 
where  these  relate  to  the  marriage  of  his  practical  and 
artistic  elements.  The  architect  must  also  know  the 
materials,  their  texture,  color,  weight,  cost,  and  composi- 
tion— all  of  which  have  multiplied  vastly  in  number  and 
complexity  in  recent  years. 

The  personal  equation  in  architecture  has,  however, 
more  consideration  than  ever  before,  and  it  has  been 
growing  in  importance  practically  since  the  time  of  the 
Gothic.  Throughout  the  entire  Renaissance  period  the 
individual  and  his  own  peculiar  method  become  more 
and  more  prominent,  and  the  result  is  apparent  in  the 
development  of  the  styles.  This,  I  believe,  is  the  result 
of  the  political  independence  of  the  individual  and  of  his 
acceptance  of  the  right  to  express  in  any  form  or  period. 
This  personal  independence  has  created  and  does  create 
subtle  differences  which  may  be  recognized  by  those  who 
have  more  intimacy  with  the  man  or  with  the  school  than 
ordinarily  comes  within  the  view  of  the  layman.  This 
exists  in  precisely  the  same  degree  as  in  music  or  in  litera- 
ture, where  men  may  recognize  the  turn  of  a  note  or  of  a 
phrase  and  its  personality. 

There  is  a  side  of  architecture,  however,  which  should 
fairly  be  considered  by  the  interested  layman  as  well 
within  the  field  of  his  knowledge  and  judgment.  This 
side  includes  rugs,  with  the  stories  of  their  Eastern  sym- 
bolism, furniture  and  other  accessories,  and  their  proper 
adjustment  to  their  architectural  surroundings;  china  in 
all  its  forms;  silver  in  its  ancient  glory,  with  its  own  trade 

3H 


THE  ARCHITECT  AND  THE  FUTURE 

and  guild  stories;  folklore  woven  into  the  usual,  the 
common,  and  every-day  weaves  and  ornaments  in  linens 
and  laces,  showing  periods,  historical  trade  truths,  and 
human  desire.  These  stories  can  be  found  in  all  the 
furnishings  that  a  modern  home  requires.  These  appar- 
ently unimportant  items  are  too  frequently  considered 
beyond  the  ken  of  law  and  of  cultivation.  The  story  of 
human  effort  and  its  expression,  graphically  told,  as  we 
have  seen,  in  the  everlasting  language  of  stone  and  brick, 
is  also  told  in  these  useful  and  ornamental  accessories. 
The  architect  who  designs  and  creates  a  cathedral  will 
apply  the  same  knowledge  of  the  laws  in  the  selection  or 
designing  of  a  simple  piece  of  table  furniture.  Why  should 
not  the  layman  secure  for  himself  a  share  in  the  pleasures 
which  any  measure  of  this  special  knowledge  does  not 
fail  to  give  ? 

There  is  a  strong  temptation  to  lose  one's  self  among 
these  various  and  fascinating  related  subjects,  but  of 
necessity  I  confine  myself  to  the  main  branch  of  expressed 
civilization,  leaving  my  readers  to  follow  the  pleasant 
by-paths  in  other  company. 

Consideration  of  the  human  stories  in  the  arts  and 
sciences,  with  some  research  along  these  parallel  roads, 
might  well  be  a  part  of  the  curriculum  of  high  schools, 
private  schools,  and  of  every  college.  Here  is  educa- 
tional material  of  fundamental  human  importance. 

Nor  would  this  interfere  with  the  growth  of  the  financial 
imagination,  nor  in  any  degree  reduce  the  joy  of  life.  It 
would  give  to  the  retiring  business  or  professional  man  a 
field  of  intellectual  and  aesthetic  activity  and  research 
with  which  to  end  his  days,  and  it  would  also  soften  the 
sharp  edges  of  commercial  conflict  that  is  some  day  to 

3J5 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

give  us  the  millennium  of  a  general  and  common  appre- 
ciation of  the  good  things. 

As  we  have  said,  the  main  line  of  that  scientific  ex- 
pression which  is  architecture  is  less  than  half  what  is 
popularly  called  art.  In  the  very  nature  of  things  it  is  a 
supplying  of  every-day,  tangible  human  needs  for  shelter, 
isolation,  and  comfort;  and  we,  all  of  us,  laymen  and 
scientists  alike,  may  well  demand  a  say  in  the  supplying 
of  such  needs. 

In  this  joint  partnership  of  the  layman  and  the  scientist 
the  knowledge  both  of  business  necessities  and  the  econom- 
ical adjustments  of  financial  exchange,  of  business  laws, 
and  the  practical  handling  of  men  is  of  as  much  impor- 
tance as  a  knowledge  of  the  arts  and  the  laws  thereof. 
This  leads  us  to  the  conclusion  that  a  good  artist  cannot 
be  a  complete  artist  without  constructive  faculty  and  a 
full  appreciation  of  commercial  or  trade  requirements. 

As  it  was  among  the  men  of  the  Middle  Ages,  the  mod- 
ern architect  has  his  guild  or  society:  the  American  In- 
stitute of  Architects,  with  chapters  in  all  the  important 
centres  of  the  country.  Almost  every  strong  man  in  the 
profession  is  within  this  body,  although  its  membership  is 
still  a  minority  of  practising  architects.  The  A.  I.  A. 
has  done  a  great  deal,  by  reason  of  its  national  character, 
to  strengthen  that  estimable  group  of  public-spirited  and 
insistent  body  of  practising  architects  now  living,  and  to 
raise  public  recognition  of  professional  devotion  to  sound 
traditions  and  high  standards.  This  influence  will  con- 
tinue to  grow  so  long  as  intellect  and  not  interest  remains 
the  hall-mark  of  professional  success. 

The  desire  of  the  Institute  is  to  develop  this  professional 
authority  not  only  in  private  practice,  but  also  in  the  field 

316  ' 


THE  ARCHITECT  AND  THE  FUTURE 

of  Federal  building.  In  this  case  the  client  must  be  the 
United  States  Government,  which  in  past  years  had  proved 
itself  a  most  unenlightened  if  not  over-particular  builder. 
To  save  the  nation  from  its  own  folly  in  thus  memorializ- 
ing itself  for  posterity,  the  American  Institute  of  Archi- 
tects has  advocated  the  creation  of  a  Federal  Bureau  of 
Fine  Arts. 

This  Bureau  of  Fine  Arts,  and  eventually  a  govern- 
mental Department  of  Fine  Arts,  based  in  part  on  the 
effective  systems  in  use  in  France  and  the  other  European 
governments,  is  without  doubt  assured  to  us  in  the  near 
future.  A  great  need,  a  vast  amount  of  public  opinion, 
and  all  the  not  inconsiderable  influence  of  the  American 
Institute  of  Architects,  and  many  other  bodies  similar  in 
general  character,  are  encouraging  the  innovation.  Cer- 
tainly the  importance  to  American  citizenship  is  im- 
measurable. 

Of  other  factors  that,  working  with  the  architect,  play 
a  part  in  architectural  expression,  are  the  material  manu- 
facturers, the  builders,  and  the  workmen.  The  archi- 
tect is  no  longer  a  craftsman,  though  he  must  know  as 
much  as  the  craftsman  in  each  of  a  dozen  fields.  He  must 
materialize  his  ideal — and  the  ideal  of  his  time — through 

O 

various  human  agencies  more  or  less  imperfect,  usually 
more  than  less.  He  must  find  all  the  varying  elements 
that  have  contributed  to  his  conception — laws,  traditions, 
the  national  spirit,  the  dominating  ideal  of  his  period,  the 
nationality  of  the  style  he  has  borrowed,  the  temperament, 
occupation,  habits,  and  prejudices  of  his  clients  and  the 
imaginative  quality  he  has  added,  interpreted  through 
these  others. 

The  architect,  nevertheless,  has  a  profession  with  pecul- 

31/ 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

iar  and  especial  privileges  and  honors.  He  is  in  a  most 
intimate  sense  the  historian  of  his  time,  an  almost  uncon- 
scious recorder  of  the  very  spirit  of  nations,  and  his  record 
has  a  permanence  and  a  verity  unequalled  in  the  world. 
Even  the  marvellous  literature  of  Greece  is  not  as  much 
to  us  to-day  as  her  architecture,  the  influence  of  which,  in 
a  hundred  forms,  is  seen  whichever  way  we  turn. 

And  so  it  will  be  with  the  architects  of  to-day  a  century 
or  two  hence.  They  will  tell  our  grandchildren  what 
manner  of  folk  we  were.  And  our  grandchildren  will 
laugh  or  weep  at  the  story.  What  this  story  may  be  I 
have  tried  with  you  to  discover.  Perhaps  1  should  say  I 
have  tried  to  point  a  way  for  its  discovery;  to  give,  in 
other  words,  a  method  by  which  the  perspective  of  time 
may  be  applied,  however  roughly,  even  to  our  own  day. 

And  what  of  the  future  ?  If  the  tendency  of  the  time 
is  toward  a  further  analysis  and  rehabilitation  of  classic 
forms,  must  we  be  contented  with  the  prospect  of  such 
an  operation  till  the  end  of  time  ? 

If  our  review  of  style  evolution  has  demonstrated  any 
one  fundamental  law  regarding  it,  this  is  that  conditions 
must  produce  some  compelling  ideal,  must  bring  about 
some  great  crisis  to  give  science  the  emotional  impetus  for 
creation. 

The  ideal  in  architecture  to-day  is  chiefly  the  personal 
ideal — that  artistic  conscience  again — of  the  group  that 
is  building  us  our  buildings;  a  brilliant  group  doing  ex- 
cellent individual  work,  whose  ambitions  are  the  strongest 
element  in  the  architectural  progress  of  our  time. 

You  remember  that  it  was  a  great  ebullition  of  civic 
pride  which  gave  Athens  her  architecture,  the  inspiration 
of  a  new  religious  ideal  that  began  the  Christian  archi- 


THE  ARCHITECT  AND  THE  FUTURE 

tecture  called  Romanesque,  and  the  addition  of  a  national 
ideal  to  that  which  gave  France  the  Gothic.  Similarly 
the  awakening  of  intellectual  and  philosophical  interest 
and  activities — a  less  potent  force — brought  about  the 
Renaissance,  which  was  not  in  the  same  degree  creative. 

What  have  we  in  America  comparable  to  any  of  these 
forces  ?  What  conflict  is  going  on,  or  is  imminent,  that 
might  key  us  to  the  creative  pitch  of  these  olden  times  ? 

With  civic  pride  we  are  surely  but  lightly  endowed, 
for  national  feeling  has  taken  the  place  of  local  sentiment. 
The  city  of  to-day  is  not,  in  these  times  of  universal  travel, 
in  any  degree  like  the  city  of  old,  which  was  a  nation  in 
itself  and  sufficient  unto  itself.  Of  nationalism,  too,  we 
are  not  heavily  burdened.  Our  recently  quickened  un- 
derstanding of  commercial  and  political  frailties,  our  grow- 
ing national  pessimism,  and  our  broadening  world  sym- 
pathies are  influences  antagonistic  to  any  violent  patriotic 
elation.  Nor  is  a  unity  of  religious  or  ethical  ideal  possible 
with  the  multiple  divisions  of  creed,  the  rapidly  transi- 
tional development  of  religious  thought,  and  our  rather 
coldly  intellectual  attitude  toward  all  formulated  schemes 
of  ethical  truth.  While  such  a  union  of  religious  teach- 
ing, under  some  great  and  inspiring  leader,  as  yet  un- 
heralded, is  possible,  and  the  various  progressive  move- 
ments toward  a  more  metaphysical  and  de-doctrinated 
code  seem  to  be  preparing  the  way,  the  tendency  is  so  far 
in  the  other  direction.  Religious  progress  at  this  time  is 
decidedly  toward  a  broader  and  freer  individualism  than 
the  world  has  ever  known.  The  progress  is  distinctly 
intellectual,  and  the  age  continues  an  intellectual  one. 
Widely  inclusive  investigation  and  experiment,  transition, 
uncertainty,  and  unrest,  though  not  without  progress,  are 


HOW   TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 

the  keynotes  of  the  time,  and  our  architecture  reveals  it 
even  to  ourselves. 

The  big,  dominating  force  in  America  to-day  is  its  in- 
dustrial feudalism,  and  its  restraining  force  is  the  ideal 
of  the  individual.  This  is  developed  to  a  point  unknown 
in  the  previous  history  of  architecture.  The  opportuni- 
ties given  the  average  American  to  express  himself  in 
domestic  architecture  are  unique.  The  condition  is  un- 
doubtedly an  outcome  of  the  interesting  partnership  be- 
tween the  industrial  overlord  and  his  retainers.  The 
overlord  requires  libraries,  institutions  of  learning,  banks, 
and  palaces,  and  we  have  them.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
have  to-day  a  domestic  architecture  of  the  highest  degree 
of  excellence,  a  new  expression  which  is  not  only  com- 
fortable and  fit,  but  beautiful  and  supremely  convenient. 

Science  will  continue  to  build  more  and  more  amazing 
temples  for  the  overlord  as  long  as  the  industrial  ideal 
retains  its  power.  And  when  the  time  comes  for  the 
third  great  revolution,  or  evolution,  and  that  ideal  is  de- 
stroyed or  modified,  out  of  the  conflict,  saved  by  the  ideal 
of  the  individual  unit,  will  arise  a  new  and  vital  power, 
perhaps  approaching  the  Ideal  socialism  of  the  thirteenth 
century  without  the  attending  horrors,  perhaps  a  world 
citizenship,  and  science  will  build  temples  to  the  new 
ideal,  and  a  new  style  will  be  born. 


INDEX 


ABACUS,  the,  term  explained,  40; 
in  Ionic  capital,  42. 

Acropolis,  the  Greek;  relation  of 
our  buildings  to,  32. 

Aiken,  William  Martin,  American 
architect,  301. 

Albany,  N.  Y.,  City  Hall  at,  an  ex- 
ample of  Romanesque,  122. 

Alexander  the  Great,  tomb  of,  56 
(Fig.  21). 

Alhambra,  the,  Moorish  arch  of, 
74  (Fig.  31). 

American  architecture,  polyglot 
character  of,  4 ;  as  source  of  his- 
torical data,  4;  colonial,  79;  ex- 
ample of  Roman  in,  79;  ex- 
amples of  Gothic  in  buildings, 
157,  1 60,  164;  translations  of 
French  Renaissance,  the  domi- 
nating influence  in,  211;  Geor- 
gian period  in,  271  et  seq.;  essen- 
tially Greek  in  old  N.  Y.,  264; 
begins  in  U.  S.  with  colonial, 
275;  dominating  element  to-day, 
298;  decadence  of,  294  et  seq.; 
revival  of  classic  in,  303;  ideals 
of  to-day,  3  18. 

American  Institute  of  Architect- 
ure, the,  aims  of,  316. 

Apses,  the,  of  Romanesque 
churches  described,  102;  de- 
velopment of,  109;  detail  of  in 
Church  of  Notre  Dame  du  Port, 
iii. 

Arabesque,  in  Moorish  architect- 
ure, 73  (Figs.  30,  31). 

Arch,  the,  Moorish,  from  the  Alca- 
zar, 74  (Fig.  31);  in  the  Alham- 
bra, 74;  change  in  form  of,  102; 
development  of  pointed  Gothic, 
107  ;  as  basis  of  Gothic  architect- 


ure, 132;  pointed  Gothic,  136; 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  159; 
treatment  of  round,  183  ;  de- 
velopment of  in  England,  246. 

Arches,  Roman  triumphal,  58; 
Roman  with  pediment,  67; 
round  as  substitute  for  the  lin- 
tel, 101;  stone  in  Gothic  archi- 
tecture, 132. 

Architect's  drawing  of  a  house  in 
Salem,  282. 

Architect,  the,  his  share  in  the 
evolution  of  style,  311  et  seq. 

Architectural  styles — Assyrian,  16; 
Babylonian,  16;  origin  of  the 
Ionic,  20  (Fig.  5) ;  importance  of 
Greek,  26;  evolution  of,  29; 
Roman,  58 ;  Byzantine  a  product 
of  Christianity,  63  (Figs.  23,  24) ; 
Russian,  73,  76;  Saracenic  in 
America,  83 ;  the  Romanesque, 
95;  development  of  in  early 
Middle  Ages  dependent  on 
skilled  craftsmen,  120;  highest 
development  of  in  northern 
France  in  Middle  Ages,  125-13  i ; 
the  Gothic,  132—149;  Flamboy- 
ant Gothic,  150—1155;  Renais- 
sance, 169-195;  rebirth  of  the 
classic,  174;  example  of  Roman 
Renaissance,  179,  193,  195,  199; 
example  of  Italian  Renaissance, 
186,  188;  Venetian,  189,  190; 
example  of  Florentine,  192; 
example  of  French  Renaissance, 
205,  209;  Francis  I.,  209;  ex- 
ample of  Louis  XIV.,  216,  221; 
example  of  Renaissance,  230, 
234;  English  development  of, 
239  et  seq.;  Perpendicular  Goth- 
ic in  England,  246,  247;  Tudor 


321 


1I()\V    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 


Gothic  in  England,  247;  Eliza- 
bethan in  England,  248-251  ;  ex- 
amples of  English,  241,  243,  245, 
249,  252;  the  Georgian  in  Eng- 
land, 256  c/  scq.;  English  Renais- 
sance in  America,  258,  259;  re- 
vival of  all  styles  in  England, 
261;  colonial,  261,  275  ct  scq.; 
Victorian  Gothic,  265  ;  the  Geor- 
gian in  America,  271  ct  scq.; 
Spanish  Renaissance  in  Mexico, 
272;  how  to  distinguish  from 
each  other,  293;  American  do- 
mestic or  "  carpenter  style"  a  re- 
production of  the  Flemish,  297. 

Architecture,  human  factors  in,  3- 
9;  trade  and  scientific  factors  in, 
10-25  ;  apogee  of  reached  in  Mid- 
dle Ages,  125;  an  index  to  na- 
tional conditions,  306. 

Architrave,  term  explained,  36. 

Arch  thrust,  the,  explained,  133 
(Fig.  52)  ct  scq. 

Aries,  France,  church  of  St.  Tro- 
phime  an  example  of  Roman- 
esque, 103,  104. 

Assyria,  terra  -  cotta  architecture, 
16;  dominated  architecture  of 
New  World,  16. 

Assyrian      architecture,       16,      18 

(Fig.  3)- 

Assyrian  sculpture,  19  (Fig.  4). 

Astor  House,  New  York,  exam- 
ple of  Greek  Doric,  54  (Fig. 
20). 

Athens,  birthplace  of  modern  ar- 
chitecture, 26;  leading  city  of 
Greece,  28;  golden  age  of,  29  ct 
scq. 

Atrium  or  parris,  term  explained, 
140. 

Axis,  the,  controlling  factor  in 
composition,  22  (Fig.  6). 

BABYLONIAN  architecture,  16. 

Baroque,  variety  of  Venetian  Re- 
naissance, 193. 

Basilica,  the  basis  for  Christian 
church  architecture,  88. 

Basilican  architecture,  compared 
with  Byzantine,  91;  differs  from 
the  classic,  92;  during  tenth 
century,  97. 


Beauvais,  France,  cathedral  as  an 

example  of  Gothic  arch,  135. 
Black-walnut-and-haircloth  period 

in  architecture,  233,  265,  295. 
Blois,  France,  chateau  at,  showing 

the  classic  influence,  197,  204. 
Boston,  Trinity  Church,  porch  of, 

as     example     of     Romanesque, 

IIQ. 

British  architecture,  dominant 
characteristic  of,  239.  See  Eng- 
land. 

Buttress-and-arch  form,  beginning 
of,  101. 

Byzantine  architecture,  the  prod- 
uct of  Christianity,  62 ;  exam- 
ples of,  64,  65  (Figs.  23,  24); 
technical  description  of,  66;  not 
an  influence  of  tremendous  im- 
portance, 70;  pointed,  70;  in 
America,  80;  compared  with 
Basilican,  91;  not  influential  in 
art  of  the  West,  99;  an  offshoot 
of  the  pure  Greek,  99:  influence 
of  in  Notre  Dame  du  Puy,  107; 
cathedral  of  St.  Front,  112  (Fig. 
46). 

Byzantine  capital,  St.  Mark's, 
Venice,  72  (Fig.  291;);  at  Ra- 
venna ibid.  (Fig.  296). 

Byzantine  churches,   64,   65,    187. 

CAPITAL,  Assyrian,  showing  the 
origin  of  the  Ionic,  20  (Fig.  5) ; 
Corinthian,  45  (Fig.  13),  46 
(Fig.  14);  composite,  73  (Fig. 
30);  Roman,  101  (Fig.  39). 

Capitol,  the,  Rome,  example  of 
Italian  Renaissance,  181. 

Cathedral  at  Beauvais,  France,  an 
example  of  Gothic  arch,  135. 

Chambers,  Sir  William,  English 
architect,  261,  265. 

Chambord,  France,  chateau  at,  an 
example  of  French  Renaissance, 
205. 

Chateau,  at  Blois,  France,  shows 
the  classic  influence,  197,  204; 
at  Chambord,  France,  an  ex- 
ample of  French  Renaissance, 
205;  at  Chenonceaux,  example 
of  the  new  Renaissance,  208. 

Chersiphron,  leading  Greek  archi- 


INDEX 


tect,    27;   builder  of  Temple  of 

Diana,  27. 
Christ,  effect  of  His  teachings  on 

architecture,  60. 
Christian    architecture,    birth    of, 

87-95- 

Christian  church  architecture,  Ba- 
silicas the  basis  for,  88  (Fig. 
38)- 

City  Hall,  Albany,  New  York,  an 
example  cf  Romanesque,  122; 
N.  Y.  City  an  example  of 
English  Renaissance,  259. 

Classic  architecture,  Roman  and 
Greek,  58;  rebirth  of  in  the  Re- 
naissance, 174;  introduction  of 
in  England,  251;  American  sky- 
scraper designed  in,  300;  revival 
in  U.S. ,303.  See  also  Greek  and 
Roman. 

Colonial  architecture,  mostly  Gre- 
cian, 47;  gambrel-roof  period, 
278;  examples  of,  288;  develop- 
ment of  in  the  South,  291.  Sec 
also  Georgian  architecture. 

Column,  the,  Assyrian,  18  (Fig.  3) ; 
Greek  development  of,  39  et  seq.; 
basis  for  classification,  of  all 
classic  buildings,  40 ;  Doric,  4 1 
(Fig.  10) ;  Ionic,  43,  48,  51  (Figs, 
n,  1 6,  1 8);  serious  fault  of  the 
Ionic,  44. 

Composite,  the,  developed  by  the 
Romans,  59. 

Constantinople,  church  of  St.  So- 
phia, showing  dome  construc- 
tion, 64  (Fig.  23) ;  technical  de- 
scription of  St.  Sophia,  66. 

Corinthian,  the,  its  origin,  44  (Figs. 
13,  14) ;  used  in  small  buildings, 
45  (Figs.  15,  17,  19) ;  example  of 
in  U.  S.,  50  (Fig.  17);  preferred 
by  the  Romans,  58. 

Cross,  the  Greek,  68 ;  use  of  as  a 
symbol,  90;  difference  between 
Roman,  and  Greek,  9 1 . 

Custom- House,  New  York,  the  old, 
an  example  of  Ionic  columns, 
51  (Fig.  1 8). 

DENTIL,  the,  term  explained,  39. 
Dinocrates,     Greek     architect     of 
Alexandria,  27. 


Dome,  the.  first  appearance  of,  65  ; 
further  developed,  68. 

Doric  architecture,  example  of  in 
U.S.,  54  (Fig.  20). 

Doric  column,  41  (Fig.  10);  com- 
pared with  Ionic,  42;  porch,  49 
(Fig.  20). 

Drum,  the,  term  explained,  68,  69. 

ECHINUS,  value  of,  41. 
Ecole  de  Beaux  Arts,  Paris,  influ- 
ence of  its  teaching,  296. 
Egypt,   influence  on  architecture, 

IS  (Fig-  -0- 

Egyptian  architecture,  influence 
of,  15;  example  of,  16  (Fig.  2). 

Egyptian  columns  from  Temple  of 
Luxor,  15. 

Elgin,  Lord,  English  architect,  263. 

Elizabethan  architecture,  248-25  i . 

Empire  architecture,  evolution  of 
under  Napoleon  I.,  232. 

England,  development  of  archi- 
tecture in,  239  et  seq.;  Canter- 
bury Cathedral  an  example  of 
early  Renaissance  and  late  Goth- 
ic, 241;  architecture  in  under 
the  Normans,  242  ;  Perpendicular 
Gothic  in,  247;  St.  Paul's  Cathe- 
dral, 252;  Tudor  Gothic  in,  247; 
Elizabethan  architecture  in,  248- 
251;  Georgian  period  in,  256  ct 
seq. 

English  Renaissance  architecture 
in  America,  258,  259  (Fig.  101); 
302. 

Entablature,    term    explained,   39. 

FLAMBOYANT  Gothic  architecture, 
150  etseq.;  examples  of,  154  (Fig. 
61),  156  (Fig.  62);  its  counter- 
part in  U.  S.,  159. 

Florence,  Riccardi  Palace  at,  ex- 
ample of  Italian  Renaissance, 
171. 

Florentine  architecture,  185;  ex- 
ample of,  192,  195. 

Fontainebleau,  Paris,  example  of 
Francis  I.  period,  202  (Fig.  83). 

Formula?,  architectural,  ancient 
and  modern  the  same,  114- 
117. 

France,  beginnings  of  architecture 


323 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 


in,  96-100;  development  of  the 
Gothic  in,  125-131;  the  Re- 
naissance in,  196-212;  School  of 
Fine  Arts,  234. 

Francis  I.,  period  of  in  France, 
20 1  cl  seq. 

French  Renaissance  architecture, 
beginnings  of,  198  ct  scq.;  ex- 
amples of,  205-2  1 1 ;  in  America, 
299  (Fig.  115). 

GAMBREL  ROOF,  Newport,  R.  I., 
278  (Fig.  107). 

Georgian  architecture,  in  England, 
256  ct  scq.;  in  America,  271  ct 
seq.;  examples  of,  in  America, 
289,  292. 

Germany,  architectural  progress 
in,  308—3 10. 

Gothic  arch,  pointed,  107. 

Gothic  architecture,  preparation 
for,  125-131;  the  arch  the  basis 
of,  132  ;  development  of,  132-140; 
examples  of,  135  et  scq.;  churches 
the  supremest  expression  of, 
138;  domestic,  139  (Fig.  55) ;  the 
nave  in,  142;  perfect  example  of, 
147-149;  example  of,  in  U.  S., 
1 60,  164;  an  evolution  from 
the  classic,  170;  forms  of,  in 
France,  202  et  seq.;  in  England, 
244;  grew  from  need  to  sup- 
port a  high  and  heavy  roof, 
298. 

Gothic  churches,  description  of, 
140  et  seq. 

Grammar  of  architecture,  the,  2 1 
ct  seq. 

Greek  architecture,  the  dominant 
style  in  U.  S.  to-day,  26;  how 
developed,  27;  the  Parthenon  an 
example  of  classic,  36  (Fig.  9); 
basis  of  classic,  45,  52,  264;  its 
style  applied  but  rarely  assimi- 
lated, 257;  Latin  and  Anglo- 
Saxon  expression  of,  263.  See 
also  Classic,  Corinthian,  Greek, 
Doric,  Ionic. 

Greek  architects,   the  leading,   27. 

Greek  cross,  68,  69  (Fig.  26);  112 
,  (Fig.  46). 

Greek  culture,  developed  from  the 
arts  and  sciences  of  the  East,  1 8 ; 


the  lonians*  contribution  to,  18; 
the  Dorians'  contribution  to,  u>; 
effect  of  seen   in   early   Roman 
architecture,  56. 
Greek  factors  in  architecture,  26- 

52- 

Greek  stone  construction,  35  (Fig. 
8). 

HENRY  IV.  of  France,  development 

of  architecture  under,  215,  216. 

Herald  Building  in  New  York  an 
example  of  Italian  Renaissance, 
1 88. 

Holland,  Henry,  English  archi- 
tect, 262. 

Human  factors  in  architecture,  3- 
9- 

Hunt,  Richard  M.,  American  ar- 
chitect, introduced  the  New 
Greek  style  in  U.  S.,  297. 

ICTINUS,  Greek  architect,  27. 

Ionic  architecture,  origin  of,  20 
(Fig.  5);  used  by  the  Athenians, 
41;  column  (Figs.  11,  16,  18); 
serious  fault  of,  44  ;  capital  show- 
ing volute,  44  (Fig.  12);  com- 
pared with  Doric,  42. 

Italian  architecture,  the  multiple 
variations  in  styles  of,  184.  See 
Architectural  styles,  Renais- 
sance, etc. 

Italy,  development  of  architect- 
ural styles  in,  based  on  classic, 
183,  184. 

JONES,    Inigo,    English    architect, 

252. 

KNICKERBOCKER  Trust  Company, 
New  York,  an  example  of  Ro- 
man, 77. 

LINE  of  thrust,  in  the  arch,  1^3, 
136. 

Lintel,  the,  use  of  explained,  33. 

Louis  XIV.  of  France,  develop- 
ment of  architecture  under,  221 
ct  scq. 

Louis  XV.  of  France,  development 
of  architecture  under,  229. 

Louvre,  the,  Paris,  masterpiece  of 


324 


INDEX 


Renaissance    architecture,     234 
(Fig.  94). 

McKiM,  MEAD  &  WHITE,  American 
architects,  devoted  to  the  Italian 
Renaissance,  298. 

Madeleine,  Church  of  the,  Paris,  78. 

Madison  Square  Presbyterian 
Church,  New  York,  an  example 
of  Roman  and  Byzantine,  80. 

Mansart,  Jules  Hardouin,  French 
architect,  221. 

Marshalltown,  Town,  post-office  at, 
an  example  of  French  Renais- 
sance, 298. 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology, first  school  of  archi- 
tecture in  U.  S.,  295. 

Metopes,  use  of  explained,  34,  36. 

Mexico,  architecture  in,  a  sort  of 
Spanish  Renaissance,  272. 

Mission  style,  teaches  the  value  of 
simplicity,  274. 

Modillions,  use  of,  38. 

Moorish  architecture,  characteris- 
tics of,  72;  example  of,  83. 

XARTHEX,  the,  140. 

National  types  of  architecture, 
creation  of,  20. 

Nave,  denned,  140;  in  Gothic  ar- 
chitecture, 142. 

New  England,  development  of 
architecture  in,  281  et  seq. 

New  England  houses,  description 
of,  279. 

New  York  City,  old  Tombs  Prison, 
example  of  Egyptian,  16  (Fig. 
2) ;  Union  Square  Savings- Bank, 
example  of  Corinthian,  50;  old 
Custom-House,  an  example  of 
Ionic  columns,  51  (Fig.  18);  col- 
onnade on  Lafayette  Place,  ex- 
ample of  Corinthian,  53;  Astor 
House,  an  example  of  Greek 
Doric,  54  (Fig.  20) ;  Knicker- 
bocker Trust  Co.,  an  example  of 
Roman,  77;  Madison  Square 
Presbyterian  Church,  an  ex- 
ample of  Roman  and  Byzantine, 
So;  Temple  Emanu-el,  example 
of  Moorish,  83;  St.  Thomas's 
Church,  an  example  of  Gothic, 


158;  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  ex- 
ample of  Gothic,  162;  doorway 
on  Broadway,  an  example  of 
fifteenth  -  century  Gothic,  164; 
Herald  Building,  an  example  of 
Italian  Renaissance,  188,  195; 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  Station, 
an  example  of  Roman  Renais- 
sance, 194;  Tiffany  &  Co.,  ex- 
ample of  Venetian,  190;  public 
library,  example  of  Florentine, 
192;  City  Hall,  an  example  of 
English  Renaissance,  259. 

Normans,  the,  adapters  of  archi- 
tecture in  England,  244. 

Notre  Dame  du  Port,  doorway  of, 
compared  with  entrance  of  St. 
Trophime,  106  (Fig.  42);  dis- 
tinctive features  of,  109. 

Notre  Dame  du  Puy,  church  of,  at 
Le-Puy-en-Velay,  described,  107. 

PAPIER-MACHE,  used  as  a  substi- 
tute for  carved  ornaments,  283. 

Paris,  France,  Church  of  the  Made- 
leine, example  of  Roman  tem- 
ple, 78  (Fig.  34);  80,  Church  of 
Ste.-Chapelle,  perfect  example 
of  Gothic,  148,  149. 

Parthenon,  the,  example  of  Greek 
classic,  36  (Fig.  9) ;  structural 
resemblance  to  primitive  house, 
36. 

Parvis.      See  Atrium. 

Pendentives,  term  explained,  66. 

Pennsylvania  Railroad  Station, 
New  York,  an  example  of  Ro- 
man Renaissance,  194. 

Pericles,  architectural  develop- 
ment under,  3  t. 

Perpendicular  Gothic  in  England, 
246,  247. 

Pittsburg,  Court-House  at,  as  ex- 
ample of  Romanesque,  121. 

Plinth,  in  Tuscan  column,  59. 

Portsmouth,  Va.,  Post-Office,  as  an 
example  of  English  Renaissance, 
302. 

Pre-Aryan  architecture  in  Amer- 
ica, 272. 

Public  library,  New  York,  an  ex- 
ample of  Florentine,  192. 

Purlins,  use  of  explained,  33. 


325 


HOW    TO    KNOW    ARCHITECTURE 


RENAISSANCE  architecture,  a  re- 
birth of  the  classic,  169-195;  sec- 
ond period  of  in  France,  213  ct 
seq.;  under  Louis  XIV.,  224  ct 
seq. ;  the  Louvre,  a  masterpiece  of, 
234  (Fig.  94) ;  translation  of  in 
England,  257. 

Rheims,  cathedral  at,  example  of 
Gothic,  Frontis.,  143. 

Richardson,  H.  H.,  American  ar- 
chitect, interpreter  of  the  Ro- 
manesque in  U.  S.,  124,  297. 

Roman  architecture,  a  hybrid  de- 
velopment of  borrowed  Greek, 
58;  preference  for  Corinthian, 
58;  influence  on  styles  of  Amer- 
ican colonies,  76,  example  of, 
77  (Fig-  34).  78;  follows  the 
classic  tradition,  180. 

Roman  capitals,  showing  influ- 
ence of  the  Byzantine.  101  (Fig. 

39)- 

Roman  Renaissance  architecture, 
example  of,  193,  195,  199. 

Roman  temple,  example  of,  in 
Church  of  the  Madeleine,  78 
(Fig.  34)- 

Romanesque  architecture,  precur- 
sor of  the  Gothic,  94;  created 
in  southern  France,  99;  stone 
vaults  in,  100;  development  of 
along  structural  lines,  102  (Fig. 
40) ;  St.  Trophime,  example  of, 
103;  portal  at  St.  Gilles,  105 
(Fig.  41) ;  doorway  Notre  Dame 
du  Port,  1 06;  example  of  at 
Issoire,  109:  example  of  at  Notre 
Dame  du  Puy,  109  (Fig.  4^5) ;  in 
Cathedral  of  St.  Front,  112  (Fig. 
46) ;  common  characteristics  of, 
1 13 ;  examples  of,  in),  121,  122, 

123- 

Romanesque  bracket,  showing 
Greek  influence  in  simple  fret, 
123  (Fig.  51). 

Rome,  her  place  in  development  of 
architecture,  57;  Farnese  Palace 
at,  179,  193:  the  capital  at,  an 
example  of  Italian  Renaissance, 
181;  her  importance  in  archi- 
tecture, 193. 

Rouen,  France,  cathedral  at,  ex- 
ample of  Gothic,  145;  Church  of 


St.    Maclou   at,    an   example   of 

Gothic,  155,  156. 
Ruskin,  author's  exception  to  his 

definition  of  architecture,  2  i . 
Russian  architecture,  73,  76. 

SAINTE  -  CHAPELLE,  Church  of, 
Paris,  a  perfect  example  of 
Gothic,  148,  149. 

St.  Front,  Cathedral  of,  at  Peri- 
gueux,  compared  with  St. Mark's, 
Venice,  110,  112  (Fig.  46). 

St.  Gilles,   Romanesque  portal  at, 

105  (Fig.   41);  detail  of  portal, 

1 06  (Fig.  42). 

St.  John  the  Divine,  N.Y.,  Cathe- 
dral of,  Byzantine  and  fifteenth- 
century  Gothic,  16 1. 

St.  Maclou  at  Rouen,  an  example 
of  Flamboyant  Gothic,  i=;q,  156. 

St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  New' York, 
an  example  of  Gothic,  162. 

St.  Sophia,  Constantinople,  64 
(Fig.  23);  technical  description 
of,  66. 

St.  Thomas's  Church,  New  York, 
example  of  Gothic,  158,  163. 

St.  Trophime,  Church  of,  Aries, 
example  of  Romanesque,  103; 
described,  104. 

Saracenic  architecture  in  America, 

83- 

School  of  Fine  Arts,  France,  234. 

Schwab,  Charles  M.,  residence  of, 
an  example  of  French  Renais- 
sance, 2  i  o. 

Siena,  Italy,  the  Duomo  at,  an  ex- 
ample of  pointed  Byzantine,  70 
(Fig.  27). 

Sill,  the,  use  of  explained,  33. 

Sky-scrapers,  American,  designed 
in  classic  style,  better  suited  to 
Gothic,  300. 

So/Jit,  the,  explained,  39. 

Southern  colonial  houses,  descrip- 
tion of,  291 . 

Spain,  architectural  progress  in, 
305,  306. 

Spanish  Renaissance  in  Mexico,  272. 

Stone  vaults,  in  Romanesque  arch- 
itecture. 100. 

Symbolism,  Christian,  develop- 
ment of,  117,  i  iS. 


326 


INDEX 


TAYLOR,  JAMES  KNOX,  American 
architect,  301. 

Temple  Emanu-el,  New  York,  ex- 
ample of  Moorish  architecture, 83 . 

Tiffany  &  Company,  New  York,  an 
example  of  Venetian,  190. 

Titus,  triumphal  arch  of,  59  (Fig. 
22). 

Tombs  Prison,  the  old,  example  of 
Egyptian  architecture,  1 6  ( Fig. 2 ) . 

Trade,  intimate  relation  to  archi- 
tecture, 10 ;  contribution  to 
style  in  architecture,  10  et  seq.; 
routes,  ii. 

Trade  routes,  influence  on  de- 
velopment of  architecture,  1 1 
et  seq.;  307,  308. 

Triglyphs,  use  of  explained,  34,  36; 
decorative  treatment  of,  38. 

Trinity  Church,  Boston,  porch  of, 
as  example  of  Romanesque,  119. 

Troyes,  France,  cathedral  at,  an 
example  of  Flamboyant  Gothic, 
147. 

Truss,  the,  use  of  explained,  33. 

Tudor  Gothic  architecture  in  Eng- 
land, modern  translation  of,  245, 
247. 

Tuscan,  the,  development  of  by 
the  Romans,  58;  resemblance  to 
Greek  Doric,  59. 

UNION  SQUARE  SAVINGS-BANK, 
New  York,  an  example  of  Co- 
rinthian, 50  (Fig.  17). 

Unitarian  Church,  New  York,  ex- 
ample of  English  translation  of 
the  Byzantine,  80. 

VANDERBILT,  W.  K.,  residence,  ex- 
ample of  Gothic,  160. 


Venetian  architecture,  cosmopoli- 
tanism of,  189;  a  distinct  style, 
ibid.;  example  of  in  U.  S.,  190. 

Venetian  Gothic  architecture,  a 
developed  Romanesque,  191 ;  ex- 
ample of  (Fig.  69). 

Venetian  Renaissance,  Palladio 
moving  spirit  of,  191 ;  decadence 
of  to  baroque  variety,  193. 

Venice,  Church  of  St.  Mark's  at,  an 
interpretation  of  St.  Sophia,  65 
(Fig.  24) ;  doorway  of  Church  of 
St.  Mark's,  71;  round  arches, 
Church  of  St.  Mark's,  173;  ducal 
palace  at,  an  example  of  Vene- 
tian Gothic,  175;  library  at,  an 
example  of  Venetian  Renais- 
sance, 177.  « 

Verona,  Italy,  palace  at,  example 
of  Italian  Renaissance,  186. 

Versailles,  palace  of,  example  of 
Louis  XIV.,  217,  221;  the  Petit 
Trianon  at,  an  example  of  Re- 
naissance, 230. 

Victorian  Gothic  architecture,  re- 
vival of  in  England,  265;  ex- 
ample of,  295  (Fig.  114).' 

Volute,  the,  explained,  43,  44  (Fig. 

12). 

WARE,  Prof.  WILLIAM  ROBERT,  his 
influence  on  American  architect- 
ure, 296. 

Westminster  Abbey,  an  example 
of  Gothic,  243. 

Wren,  Sir  Christopher,  English 
architect,  252,  259. 

ZENANA,  the,  Agra,  India,  example 
of  Russian  architecture,  75  (Fig. 

32),  76- 


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